Villa of the Papyri Herculaneum. What the ancient Roman city of Herculaneum looked like, buried under the lava of Vesuvius. Past and present of Herculaneum

The Villa of the Papyri is a luxurious ancient Roman country villa, spread over an area of ​​2790 m² and located several hundred meters from Herculaneum. Buried under a layer of ash along with Pompeii and Herculaneum during the eruption of Vesuvius in 79, it was discovered in the late 1740s. Under the leadership of the Swiss engineer Karl Weber, it was explored for six years by punching corridors in the rock, but in 1765, due to the release of gas, the excavations were curtailed. Archaeological work resumed in the 1930s and 1990s, when about 10% of the villa was cleared of rock within eight years. In 1998, excavations were suspended due to lack of funds.

The villa was probably built in the 1st century BC. e. and initially had much more modest dimensions, but was later completed. The territory of the villa had the shape of a rectangle a quarter of a kilometer long. In its western part there was a spacious peristyle measuring 90 x 35 m with a pool in the center and dozens of bronze and marble statues (some of them are exhibited in the National Archaeological Museum of Naples).

On the territory of the villa, many busts of ancient writers and statesmen were installed - the commander Scipio Africanus, the writer Aristophanes, the king of Sparta Archidamus III, the poets Paniassis and Thespis, the orator Demosthenes, the philosopher Epicurus and many others. These finds suggest that the owner of the villa was a highly educated man and a lover of the arts. It is believed that the villa belonged to Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesonius, the father of Calpurnia, Caesar's third wife.

The most impressive discovery of the villa is the unique private library (the only surviving library from Antiquity) of 1,800 papyri scrolls with texts in Greek, which were stacked in baskets and on the shelves of a number of chambers. The scrolls (the part that has been deciphered) contain mainly the works of Philodemus, as well as Caecilius Statius, Chrysippus, Colotes, Epicurus and his students Lucretius, Metrodorus of Lampsacus, Polystratus and others.

It was not immediately possible to identify the authors. As a result of the eruption, the papyri turned into charred and baked packages that broke during the first attempts to unfold and read them. In 1756, Antonio Piaggio, a priest at the Vatican Library, built a machine that could unroll scrolls without damaging them. Although this method was time-consuming, some of the least charred papyri were deciphered.

Currently, the scrolls are being studied using multispectral imaging, but the contents of about half of them still remain hidden. Scholars also suggest that unexplored areas of the villa may contain scrolls containing lost texts of Aristotle's dialogues, plays by Sophocles, Euripides and Aeschylus, and unknown books of Livy's seminal work, Histories from the Founding of the City.

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VILLA OF THE PAPYRIS - a huge ancient Roman country villa outside ancient city Herculaneum. The villa was so named because of the gigantic collection of papyrus bundles found here.

The villa was probably built in the 1st century BC. e. and initially had much more modest dimensions, but was later completed. The territory of the villa had the shape of a rectangle a quarter of a kilometer long. In its western part there was a spacious peristyle measuring 90.35 m with a pool in the center and dozens of bronze and marble statues.

The Villa of the Papyri was first opened in the 1740s. Archaeological excavations were carried out under the direction of the Swiss engineer Carl Weber for 6 years, starting in 1750. Excavations of the Villa of the Papyri were carried out by digging tunnels. The workers dug their way like moles while Weber drew up a rough description of the entire building.

The work continued under the patronage of King Charles II, the Bourbon King of Naples. Weber and his workers were essentially stealing. It is very difficult to call these excavations archaeological. The workers collected the statues, and they simply threw away or destroyed small things. About 90 magnificent statues were removed from the villa. Some of them were given as gifts to various heads of state.

The villa is located some distance from the rest of the excavated city of Herculaneum. This magnificent building has a rectangular shape (more than 250 meters in length) and is located parallel to the ancient shore of the Gulf of Naples and was built in the 1st century BC by the wealthy aristocrat Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus.

He was the Roman consul, and his daughter Calpurnia became the third wife of Julius Caesar. Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus lived in this villa after retiring. Initially the Villa was small, but was later enlarged. The highlight of the country house was a spacious peristal measuring 90 by 35 meters with a central pool in the middle. In this open space there was a garden with more than 80 bronze and marble statues.

Some of these statues are scattered throughout Europe, but most are kept in the National Archaeological Museum of Naples. Among these statues are images of the philosopher Epicurus, the Spartan king Archidamus III, the writers Thespis, Aristophanes, Paniassis, the Greek politician Demosthenes and the influential commander Scipio Africanus, so called for his victories over the army of Carthage at the end of the Punic Wars.

To date, about 1,800 scrolls have been found in the villa. On those that were unrolled in past centuries, the paint begins to degrade after contact with the air, so scientists had to rewrite the texts on another medium and put up with the loss of artifacts. Scanning revealed that when unrolled, the scrolls have a length of 11 to 15 meters. However, at the first stage it was not possible to recover any texts. The fact is that carbon-based ink was used for writing, and the papyri themselves have almost the same chemical composition, so distinguishing the paint using traditional methods was not easy.

Only in 2013, a group of specialists from the Italian National Research Council managed to develop a new method of X-ray phase-contrast tomography (XPCT), which nevertheless made it possible for the first time to recognize individual letters in these scrolls.
At the moment, only 10% of the villa has been excavated.

Villa of the Papyri− country villa of the era Ancient Rome, located a few hundred meters from Herculaneum. Presumably, the owner of the villa was the father of Caesar's wife, Lucius Piso Caesonius. The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD buried this villa under ash and lava for seventeen centuries. A team of archaeologists led by Karl Weber discovered it in the late 1740s. They excavated the villa by punching corridors in the rock at a depth of twenty-seven meters. Research was carried out for eleven years - from 1750 to the end of 1761, then was suspended due to the release of gas. After this, excavations of the villa began in the 1930s and 1990s. In total, a little more than ten percent of the villa’s territory has been excavated to date.

According to archaeological excavations, the construction of the villa began in the first century BC, and it was originally quite modest in size. Subsequently the villa was rebuilt and expanded.

Villa of the Papyri had the shape of a rectangle and occupied an area of ​​two thousand seven hundred and ninety square meters. It was stretched along the sea coast from northeast to southwest for two hundred and fifty meters. It contained two peristyles. One is large, oblong, with a vast (more than ninety-four meters long and about thirty-two meters wide) body of water in the center. The other is much smaller, in the shape of a square (10 x 10 columns), with a narrow and long pond. Adjoining the smaller peristyle from the south was an Etruscan atrium with an impluvium. To the north of this peristyle there was a room with one row of columns and an apse in the form of a semicircle, intended for physical exercise and relaxation.

Its floor was covered with a geometric mosaic. The large peristyle was a garden with alleys, fenced off from the surrounding area by a wall. Its huge reservoir is comparable only to that in the Tuscan villa of Pliny the Younger.

During the excavations, many statues, busts, herms made of marble and bronze were found. They were located in four rooms: in the large peristyle, in the Etruscan atrium and in two rooms located between the two peristyles.

During excavations at the villa, a unique private library was discovered, consisting of one thousand eight hundred papyri scrolls with texts in Greek. Its uniqueness lies in the fact that it is the only surviving library from the times of Ancient Rome. Some of the scrolls, the texts of which have been deciphered, contain works by Epicurus, Caecilius Statius, Philodemus, Chrysippus, Kolotes, Lucretius, Polystratus, etc.

The volcanic eruption turned the papyri into baked packages that broke when trying to unwrap them. In 1756, priest Antonio Piaggio created a machine capable of unrolling scrolls. This invention greatly facilitated the work of researchers. Nowadays, the scrolls are studied using multispectral photography.

Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum and its library

(review)

"Bulletin ancient history", 1991. No. 4. P. 170-182.

The terms “papyrus” and “papyrology” in our minds are firmly associated with Egypt - as the place where the plant used for writing grew, and the territory where a huge number of papyrus texts were discovered. Europeans became acquainted with papyri in the middle of the 18th century, during excavations of one of the villas of Herculaneum, where 1,800 papyrus scrolls were discovered.

Since the ancient cities of Mesopotamia with entire libraries of cuneiform tablets were liberated from mountains of sand and during excavations it was proven that the “gold-abundant Mycenae”, “fortified Tiryns” and “sandy Pylos” glorified by Homer are not a fiction, the word “miracle” is so often was associated with the name of the science “archaeology,” which, it seems, has already undergone complete devaluation. However, it is difficult to suggest otherwise short definition The Villa of the Papyri, excavated 230 years ago, long before the archaeological wonders of the 19th century. and even before the birth of archeology as a science. And the point is not only in the size of this structure, the largest of the monuments of this kind in Campania and in Italy in general, and not in the unique richness of its sculptural and pictorial decoration. The significance of the Villa of the Papyri goes beyond the history of art and life. It allows us to touch upon one of the highest manifestations of ancient thought, Epicureanism, what was reflected in the poem by Lucretius Cara “On the Nature of Things”, in the polemics of Cicero’s treatise “On the Nature of the Gods” and, to a certain extent, in the odes and epistles of Horace.

The history of the excavations of the Villa of the Papyri is little known in our country. Moreover, it is widely believed that the discoverers of this unique complex were charlatans and ignoramuses who failed to understand the true significance of their discovery. The culprit of this untrue judgment was the testimony of the famous expert on ancient art, the father of two subsidiary sciences - art history and archeology - Johann Winckelmann.

No one, not even the most prominent scientist, is immune from false assessments caused by personal emotions, and if we remember what Vnnkelman had to endure in the Portici Palace, in which all the finds of the Villa of the Papyri were then located, then one can, if not forgive him, then at least understand him. Winckelmann arrived from Rome full of enthusiasm, eager to see and study the monuments that had just been dug out of the ground. He had no doubt that he would tell the world about them. This confidence was supported by the recommendations of Roman patrons and his reputation as an expert in ancient art. However, he ran into an impenetrable wall. For 15 days, Winckelmann sought permission to visit the Portici Palace, but was refused. On the 16th day, he was able to achieve an audience with the influential minister of King Charles of Bourbon, Tanucci. The minister was also inexorable, but a little trick helped: Winckelmann expressed the opinion that foreigners were not allowed into the palace because they had nothing to show there. It was an insult! To shame the arrogant stranger, Tanucci allowed him to enter the palace, but forbade him to stop near the finds. He had to simply walk through the halls, accompanied by the curator of the Royal Museum, Camillo Paderni, who played the role of Cerberus.

Of course, this situation could not but affect Winckelmann's assessments. Winckelmann says about the director of the excavations, the Spanish grandee Rocco Alcubier, using an Italian proverb, that he had as much in common with antiquity as crayfish with the moon. In passing, Winckelmann mentions Alcubierre's assistant, the young Swiss engineer Carl Weber, without specifying what his assistance was. Winkelmann cites a case that was deadly for the organizers of the excavations (it turned out to be an anecdote), as if, when they found inscriptions made of copper letters on the walls, they threw them into a basket so that everyone could add whatever texts they wanted.

All these statements, bordering on innuendo, are refuted by surviving documents from the 18th century. The Villa of Papyri was excavated over 11 years - from 1750 to the end of 1761, in extreme conditions, at a depth of 27 m. The plan of the villa drawn up by K. Weber has been preserved with an explanation in the margins in red ink, what finds were made between July 20, 1750 and July 20, 1754. The dimensions of the villa’s premises are indicated in Neapolitan measures of length - palms (15 palms - 396 m).

Of course, a modern archaeologist, who during excavations records not only walls, columns, doors and statues (as K. Weber did), but also discreet details in the form of collapsed roof tiles, fragments of plaster, construction rubble, depressions from wheels and feet, a plan Weber will seem primitive. But let's not forget: his time was the middle of the 18th century. Taking this into account, researchers evaluate K. Weber as the founder of modern field archeology. In addition to Weber's plan, science has at its disposal diary entries by the leaders of the excavations and the curator of the royal museum Portici, letters and other documents published in 1883 by Domenico Comparetti and Giulio De Petra.

Along the front, the Villa of the Papyri stretched 250 m along the seashore, from northeast to southwest. It had two peristyles: one of them was large, oblong, with a huge reservoir in the center (94.44 x 31.754 m), the other was smaller, square (10 x 10 columns), with a long narrow reservoir. Adjoining the square peristyle from the south was a Tuscan atrium with an impluvium (10 and 15 m). To the north of the square peristyle was a room for rest and exercise. The floor of this room with a semicircular apse and one row of columns was covered with original geometric mosaics. The oblong peristyle was a garden with alleys for walking and was fenced off from the surrounding area by a wall. The pond, which occupies an area of ​​66.76 x 7.14 m, can be compared with the one that existed in the Tuscan villa of Pliny the Younger (Er. V.6.25): “If you want to swim in the open air or in warmer water, then there is swimming pool" (in area piscina est).

During excavations in 1750-1761. 67 statues, busts, herms made of bronze and marble were discovered. They were concentrated in four rooms: in the oblong peristyle, in the Tuscan atrium and in two rooms located between the oblong and square peristyle. In the Tuscan atrium, around the impluvium, there were 10 bronze busts and one bust in the center of the impluvium; in addition, there were two marble bases without busts. In the oblong peristyle (i.e., in the garden) 28 statues and herms were recorded: these are images of athletes, Hellenistic rulers, herms of philosophers, gods and heroes. In the vast room through which the square peristyle overlooked the garden, nine sculptural images were found - statues of the priest of Isis, a flamen, a bust of Epicurus, a bust of Hercules, a statue of Athena, busts of a youth, an adult man (presumably Sulla), Demosthenes and a woman. In a smaller room, located to the north of the described room, there were busts of Epicurus, his opponent Zeno, Demosthenes and Hermarch.

The predominant mass of scrolls was discovered in a small room (which can rather be called a storeroom) behind the square peristyle, but individual capsules with scrolls were also found in the square peristyle and the Tuscan atrium, as if they had been read there and abandoned during the catastrophe.

The entire collection of finds from the Villa of Papyri (statues, busts, furniture, lamps) gives the impression that these objects were collected by one person who adhered to a previously worked out plan. Questions about who this man was and what his plan was are so interconnected that they cannot be considered in isolation from each other: the placement of art monuments can help determine the identity of the owner of the villa, and identification of the identity of the owner of the villa by epigraphic and literary data provides the key to understanding that the Germans call Bild-programm, and the Italians call programma decorativa.

A new impetus for research in this direction was given by the article by Dmitry Pandermalis “Towards a program of sculptural decoration”. Drawing attention to the location in one of the rooms of statues of representatives of hostile philosophical movements (Epicurus and Zeno), to the thematic opposition of statues of dancers and Silenians to the statues of Hellenistic rulers (Pyrrhus, Alexander of Molossus and Demetrius Poliorcetes) in another room, Pandermalis suggested the presence of conflict in the decorative program of the villa between the tastes of the poet and thinker, on the one hand, and the politician and political orator, on the other (namely, between Stoic and Epicurean philosophy, between the Stoic concept of civic duty and the Epicurean concept of pleasure and joy in life; in the Roman reinterpretation - between res publica and res privata, between negotium and otium). In this regard, without abandoning the prevailing opinion in the last century that the Villa of the Papyri belonged to the Calpurnius Piso family, D. Pandermalis recognized that its organizer (in the form in which the Villa of the Papyri appeared to archaeologists) was not L. Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, consul of 58. BC, the sworn enemy of Cicero and one of the culprits in the expulsion of the great orator from Rome, and his son - L. Calpurnius Piso Pontiff, consul of 15 BC, a close friend of Augustus and Tiberius. This is what Velleius Paterculus reports about him: “His character was mixed with energy and delicacy, and it is hardly possible to find anyone else who loved idleness (otium) more and moved just as quickly to activity (negotium), who more than he , took care of business, without doing anything for show" (Veil. Pat. II.98.3).

G. Soron approached the same problem from a different perspective, noting that in its structure the Villa of the Papyri is based on the late Hellenistic gymnasium, the description of which was given by the Roman architect Vitruvius: “On the outside there are three porticoes, one coming out of the peristyle, and two others, on the right and on the left, a stade long. Of these last two, the one that faces north should be the larger one, and the remaining one the smaller. This larger double portico is called the xystom by the Greeks, because athletes sometimes practice indoors in the winter. Next to the xystom and open alleys are laid out with a double portico, which the Greeks call paradromides, and we call xystas. These xysts should be made so that between the two porticos there are groves or plane trees, and between the trees there are alleys along them "(V.11. - trans. F. A Petrovsky). According to Soron, none of the Pompeian villas has such a plan, which emphasizes the uniqueness of the Herculaneum complex, created according to Greek models.

This conclusion, made on the basis of the plan of the Villa of the Papyri, is supported by Soron by analyzing its sculptural decoration. In fact, where else can one find such a population of a relatively small space with such a variety of bronze and marble types - Hellenistic rulers, orators, poets, philosophers, people of politics and culture? The latter circumstance prompted Soron to search for literary parallels that could explain the plan of the organizer of the villa. He drew attention to the pseudo-Platonic dialogue "Axiochus", which depicts the life of blessed people (the treatise presumably dates back to the 1st century), and to Virgil's description of Elysius (VI):

638 They descended to bright regions and to blissful places of habitation. Here the ether is more spacious, and it clothes the fields with purple light; They know their sun and their stars. On the grassy ones, the members of the palestras exercise, Now competing in the game, now fighting in the yellow arena... 648 Here is the ancient generation of Teucer, a beautiful tribe, Heroes of beautiful spirit, born in the best years... 660 Here, for the fatherland, who, fighting, wounds accepted, Who were the priests who remained blameless throughout their lives, Who were the pious prophets, who prophesied what was worthy of Phoebus, Who dedicated their lives to skillful inventions, Who left a memory in others of themselves according to their merits. (Translated by V. Bryusov)

According to Soron, the peristyle and large garden of the Villa of the Papyri, in their planimetry and sculptural decoration, are not just a Greek gymnasium, but a gymnasium interpreted as Elysium, since it contains statues of athletes and rulers worthy human memory. And in this regard, he believes, we can talk about “mystical syncretism” between Epicureanism and the ideas of the Orphics.

On the other hand, in his opinion, the decor of the Villa of the Papyri reflects nostalgia for the irretrievable past and is an attempt at a mystical transfer from Italy to Athens in the era of Epicurus, the revival of a lost paradise. Only in this way, according to Soron, can one understand how such opponents of Rome as Pyrrhus and Alexander of Molossus find themselves in the “Garden of the Blessed,” which, like the entire villa, belongs to a Roman noble.

Based on this, Soron believes that the owner of the Villa of the Papyri was a person associated with the Orphic tradition, as evidenced, among other things, by the statue of Dionysus and numerous figures of the Dionysian fias - dancers, silenes and satyrs. Soron believes that the owner of the villa lived in the decade after the publication of Lucretius’s poem “On the Nature of Things”, since, in his opinion, the lines from the introduction to the second book are reflected in the planimetry of the villa:

There is nothing sweeter than standing in defense of the Joyful temples erected by wise teaching. (Translated by A.I. Nemirovsky)

Another explanation for the ideological content of the decorative program of the Villa of the Papyri is given by M. Voichik. In her opinion, the decor of the villa reflects the ideological problems of the end of the Roman Republic, which we can also judge from the works of Cicero. Marble statues of Aeschylus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Isocrates, and Demosthenes are associated with the problem of “orator and monarch” or, if translated into Roman soil, “orator and princeps.” The statues located in an oblong peristyle around a fish tank (Paniassus, Antimachus from Colophon, Bion from Borysthenes, Menippus from Gadara, representatives of epic and satirical poetry) have parallels to genres widespread in the late Republican era, such as the epics of Virgil and the satyrs of Horace. Statues of Hellenistic rulers associated with Magna Graecia - Archidamus III of Sparta, Pyrrhus and Alexander of Molossus - reflect the villa's owner's interest in Hellenistic political system. Located next to the busts of Sappho and Aristophanes, Athena and Apollo, bronze statues of satyrs and a marble group of Pan with a goat express the idea of ​​​​the opposition of wild, forest nature and culture. The bronze herms of Doryphoros and the Amazon are designed to emphasize the contrast of strength and beauty.

Based on the decorative program of the villa, M. Wojcik comes to the conclusion that the Calpurnius family had nothing to do with the villa and that the villa belonged to the Claudius Pulcher family, and the organizers of the villa were Appius Claudius Pulcher, consul of 54 BC, and his relative of Appius Claudius Pulcher, consul of 38 BC, mentioned in an inscription from Herculaneum (CIL.X.1423) as the builder of the city theater. Both of them were philhellenes.

No matter how controversial the solution to the problem of the principles of decoration of the Villa of the Papyri and the personality of its organizer may seem, we cannot ignore the merits of modern Herculanean studies in developing a comprehensive approach to the monument. The Villa of the Papyri is considered not just as a book depository, but as an architectural, sculptural and library complex associated with a certain era in the life of the Roman elite, reflecting the ideological and artistic trends of the era and its literary needs.

Of independent interest is the history of the introduction of Herculanian papyri into scientific circulation. The first to work on the newly recovered papyri were Canon Mazoki and, after his death, the Genoese Antonio Piaggio. Their work consisted of using a special mechanism (in the form of a box with a rotating shaft) to unroll the papyri and paste them onto paper. Winckelmann observed this process already during his first visit to Herculaneum: according to his testimony, it took four hours of hard work to unfold and read the text of a column the width of a finger. The first catalog of papyri was published by O. Bayardi in 1755. Bayardi's efficiency is obviously explained by the fact that all the necessary work was done by A. Piaggio. The publication of papyri began in Naples in 1793 and continued until 1855. The second series was published after the unification of Italy (1862-1876). Only one volume of the planned third series was published in 1914.

Publications and studies of Herculanian papyri in the 19th century. such prominent scientists as G. Usener, T. Gompertz and S. Sudhaus were involved. In the first half of the 20th century. the papyri were published by G. Diels, H. Jensen and R. Philippson. Diels published the work of Philodemus "On the Gods". Jensen published Philodemus's book "On Economics", the fifth book of the treatise "On Poems", the book "On Vices". He also has general work about the library of the Villa of the Papyri. R. Philippson, who passed away early (he died in a fascist concentration camp in 1942), left us the fundamental article “Philodemus” in the Real Pauli-Wissow Encyclopedia and a study on the Epicurean sources of Cicero’s treatise “On the Nature of the Gods”. Italian scientists have been very active in these years. A. Vogliano published in 1928 the work “The Works of Epicurus and the Epicureans in the Papyri of Herculaneum,” in which he examines the extant works of Epicurus and his followers Polystratus and Philodomus. G. Della Balle explores the problem of the connection between Lucretius and the Campanian Epicureans, suggesting that the author of the poem “On the Nature of Things” belonged to the Campanian family of Lucretius.

The publication of the Glossarium Epicureum is of great importance. It was prepared by G. Usener while working on the famous corpus of information about Epicurus (Epicurea) and 90 years after the publication of this work, supplemented by W. Schmid and M. Gigante with a new interpretation of individual texts and an introductory article containing the history of the study of the works of Epicurus. The glossary will also contain an index of all references to Epicurus in the ancient tradition.

The same lexicographical work on the works of Philodemus was done by the Norwegian papyrologist Knut Kleve, who compiled the “Concordantia Philodemea” and a new lexicon for Philodemus using a computer.

A new stage in the study of the Herculanian papyri begins with the VIII Congress of the G. Budet Association (Paris, April 5-10, 1968), which paid much attention to Greek and Roman Epicureanism: the latter was the subject of reports by Olivier Rene Bloch and Marcello Gigante. At the congress it was decided to create in Naples International Center based on the publication of the Herculanian papyri. It was created in 1970, and at the same time the publication of "Cronache Ercolanesi" with supplements began.

Charred papyrus scroll (PHerc. 476) from the library of the Villa of the Papyri

During these years, a significant step forward was taken in the development of the Herculanian papyri, in which scholars such as C. Kleve (in collaboration with A. Angeli), M. Capasso, L. Caprino and T. Starace played a major role. Added to this was the use of modern optical technology (binocular microscopes) and special photography of papyri in the work on the Heculan papyri. Over the past quarter of a century, only in 17 volumes of the “Herculan Chronicles” (not counting such collections as “Stoic Works in the Papyri of Herculaneum”) more than 200 texts by Epicurus, Corneiscus, Colotus, Metrodorus, Polystratus, Philodemus have been published or republished.

The paleographic research of G. Cavallo is of great importance, revealing the history of the library of the Villa of the Papyri and the stages of expansion of its collections. As the scientist established, the core of the book collection was the work of Epicurus “On Nature” in 37 books (a scroll book). The discovered books (2, 11, 12, 15) of this work belong to various publishing blocks in chronological framework between III-II and II-I centuries. BC, which makes us think “about the co-presence of different and incomplete editions that accumulate and complement each other, editions that are not only “bookwise” but also textually different, as evidenced by double or even triple copies of the same book Epicurus's work". Such duplication should not be surprising, for the work of Epicurus was the shrine of the Epicurean school - its classics, and the literary authenticity of the text was the subject of debate among the Epicureans.

It has been established that the most ancient library collection of the Villa of Papyri was formed outside Campania, having been brought by Philodemus himself either from Gadara - his Palestinian homeland, or from Athens, where the young philosopher collected it himself or inherited it from his teacher (or teachers). This fact, established on the basis of historical arguments and graphic considerations, according to Marcello Gigante, is an indicator that Philodemus consciously and systematically carried out the mission of spreading Epicureanism on the soil of Italy, where he carried the torch of teaching lit by Epicurus and supported by his students.

Along with the works of Epicurus, the library of Philodemus contained the works of the Epicurean Demetrius of Laconia (according to Diogenes Laertius, the head of the school after Zeno of Sidon), “Discussion on Life Conduct” (РНерс. 1306), “Aporia Polyene” (РНерс. 1258.1696.1642.1647.1429) , “Geometry” (RNers. 1061), “On Poetry” (RNers. 1881.1113.1014.1012), “The Size of the Sun” (RNers. 1013), “About the Gods” (RNers. 1786). All these works were, as researchers of the Herculanian papyri believe, part of the same publishing program, which Philodemus added to the core of the book collection, enriching the original fund. Thanks to the fact that these papyri, previously classified as unreadable, now began to be read, the place of Demetrius of Laconia in the development of Epicureanism was revealed. Following in the footsteps of Polyenus in the problems of geometry and astronomy, he conducted polemics with the Stoics, just as Zeno of Sidon had done before him; supplemented the teachings of Epicurus with works on theology (anthropomorphism of images of gods, epistemology of deity from the standpoint of human consciousness) and anticipated the illumination of the Epicurean system that was given by Bion of Borysthenes, and after him Philodemus of Gadara. As a textual critic, Demetrius of Laconia, turning to the writings attributed to Epicurus, sought to reveal his true thoughts and what was not trustworthy, causing controversy in the Epicurean school itself. Nowadays, the style of Demetrius of Laconia with his excitement and elation has been studied, so that now no one confuses him with the Peripatetic Demetrius of Byzantium, who lived in the middle of the 1st century. BC. and who wrote the work “On Poems” (previously РНерс. 1012, belonging to Demetrius of Laconia, was attributed to Demetrius of Byzantium). Demetrius of Lakonsky appeared before us not only as a philosopher, but also as a brilliant philologist.

The most significant part of the book collections of the library of the Villa of the Papyri are books of the 1st century. BC. and above all the books of Philodemus himself and other Epicureans, including those written after the death of Philodemus.

Based on comparative graphic typology, reconstructed creative path Philodema: we now have not just a list of it scientific works, but their list is in chronological order. In the first period of his work (between 75 and 50 BC), Philodemus acted as a historian of philosophy. During these years, during the life of Lucretius, he published "των φιλοσόφων σύνταξις." Before the discovery of the Herculanian papyri, this work could only be judged by the references of Diogenes Laertius: “Also, the three brothers (Epicure) Neocles, Heredem and Aristobulus were converted by him to philosophy, as Philodemus says in the X book of his essay on philosophers” (X, 3); “Next was Polyaenus of Lampsacus, the son of Athenodorus, and a worthy and kind man, as the followers of Philodemus claim” (X, 24). What do we know about this work on the history of philosophy now? Philodemus's list of sections relating to the Eleatic and Abderite schools (РНерс. 327), the Pythagorean school (РНерс. 1508), the Epicurean school (РНерс. 1780), the followers of a certain teaching associated with Socrates (РНерс. 495.558), has reached us. and the so-called “index of academicians”, and in two versions: “draft” (РНерс. 1021) and final version of the end of the 1st century. BC. (РНерс. 164), as well as the “index of the Stoics” (РНерс. 1018).

All this suggests that Philodemus acted not only as a researcher of Epicureanism, but also as a historian of all directions of Greek philosophical thought. Attention is drawn to the fact that Diogenes Laertius, who created in the 3rd century. a generalizing work on the history of philosophy and philosophers, just like Philodemus, he wrote 10 books, and set out the teachings of Epicurus in the last, 10th book. It was natural for Philodemus to complete the presentation with Epicurus, because for him Epicureanism is the crown of philosophical thought. And if Diogenes Laertius used this plan, then this can only mean that Philodemus’ model was used 250 years later as having stood the test of time.

By the same second quarter of the 1st century. BC e. include another work of Philodemus - “Περί παρρησίας” (РНерс. 1471). This is an attempt to interpret Epicureanism not only as an ethical system, but also as a pedagogical system, as a model of community that develops without any restrictions and represents a model of life, devoid of any ambitions and making it possible to assimilate and transmit wisdom in a free and frank exchange of opinions. This book belongs to the same direction as the works of Philodemus of a wider range: "Περί ήθών και βίων εκ των Ζήνωνος σχολών" and "Περί κακιών και τ ων αντικειμένων αρετών", in which one can see the fruit of the lectures of Zeno of Sidon, which Philodemus, as well as Cicero and Atticus (Cic. Ac. P.1.46; Tusc. III.38), listened in Athens, where Zeno from 110 to 75 BC. stood at the head of the Garden. Philodemus remained faithful to this teacher even after his death, as evidenced by the sign of gratitude to him in the book with the tattered title “Πρϊς τους (perhaps σοφΐ3τάς?” - A.N.), preserved in papyrus (РНерс. 1005), in which he defends the teachings of Epicurus and the position of the “true Epicureans” from the attacks of opponents.

The influence of Philodemus' concept of "Περί παρρησίας" on his contemporaries becomes especially clear from the work of Horace. This problem attracted widespread attention among American philologists in the 30s and early 40s. Later M. Gigante managed to connect Horace with Philodemus for more specific example, comparing fragment No. 87, which talks about how a teacher can curb a restless and impatient youth, releasing the human element in him, just as a trainer does with a young mare, with lines 62-67 of Horace’s message (1.2.62-67) .

Own your spirit. Since he is not subject to control, he himself is the ruler. You pacify him with a bridle, hold him with shackles. The rider teaches the horse while the young neck is mobile, The right way choose. And a wise hunter teaches a puppy in the yard to bark at a stuffed animal in deer skin, before taking it out into the forest... (Translated by A.I. Nemirovsky)

The first period of Philodemus’ activity also includes four books of his treatise “Music”, rewritten, as established by paleographers, in one hand and entrusted to four separate scrolls. The PHerc scroll is in the best state of preservation. 1497, containing the fourth book. In contrast to the Stoic Diogenes of Babylon, who argued that music contains an ethical principle, Philodemus distinguishes it from ethics, emphasizing the aesthetic essence of music. For him, music is a measure of sensation. It gives pleasure, which, however, is not essential. It does not contain wisdom and is not necessary for a young man seeking wisdom, nor for valor and happiness. To understand what Philodemus is arguing about, it is enough to familiarize yourself with Plutarch’s treatise “On Music,” where music is attributed divine origin and its educational significance for worship and the education of youth is postulated. Philodemus's treatise also contained a historical-critical part, where he examined the views on music of representatives of different philosophical movements - Diogenes of Babylon, Pythagoras, Damon, Plato, Aristotle and Theophrastus.

A complement to the treatise "On Music" is Philodemus' treatise "On Rhetoric", which must have consisted of at least six books. According to M. Gigante, “Rhetoric” was written over a long period of time. Some books survived in drafts or preliminary editions (РНерс. 1674 and 1506), others - in the final edition (РНерс. 1672 and 1426). At the same time, books I-III belonged to the second quarter of the 1st century. BC e., and IV (which consisted of two volumes - РНерс. 1423 and 1007/1673) - by the middle of the 1st century. BC e. There was also Book V, which arrived in poor condition. Its publication is currently being prepared.

Philodemus's "Rhetoric" (PHers. 1669) follows the same plan as "Music". The history of rhetoric is given from the Sophists to the Peripatetics (including Critolaus) and the Stoics (including Diogenes of Babylon). Philodemus argues with Hermarch, Alexinus, Metrodorus, Nausiphanes, arguing that sophistic or epidictic rhetoric is art, while political rhetoric is not art.

According to R. Philippson, Philodemus’s “Rhetoric” is dedicated to one of the representatives of the Piso family - L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi. However, V. and R. Lacey believe that the dedication refers to a follower of Lucretius, Gaius Memmius. The treatise "Rhetoric" gives reason to think that, having revised the thesis of Epicurus, Philodemus participated in the political struggle of his time. It remains unclear whether Cicero, whose theoretical works on oratory were written between 55 and 46 BC, was familiar with Philodemus’ Rhetoric. e. (“De oratore”, “Brutus”, “Orator”). The only place where Cicero touches on oratory in connection with Epicureanism is in De or. III, 63, however, it is so vague that some researchers consider it as a manifestation of hostility to Epicureanism, others - indifference to it.

The treatises "Music" and "Rhetoric" were supplemented by the treatise "On Poems", which allows us to talk about the trilogy of Philodemus "Music. Rhetoric. Poetry". We will not consider the treatise “On Poems” in detail, since it was translated into Russian by M. L. Gasparov and became the subject of study by A. F. Losev, A. A. Taho-Godi and Z. A. Pokrovskaya. Philodemus's treatise "On Music" is presented in translations only in minor passages. Giving overall assessment Philodemus’s trilogy on the “liberal sciences”, one can repeat after M. Gigante that Philodemus tried to refute Cicero’s opinion about the lack of culture of Epicurus (De fin. II.67), which was shared by many opponents of Epicureanism, and also sought to introduce liberal arts education methods natural sciences, in order to remove the indeterminacy and inaccuracy of the former. This was understood by opponents of Epicureanism in Rome. Cicero, in his speech “Against Piso,” breathing hatred into Philodemus’ patron, characterizes Philodemus himself as a worthy and educated person and gives a positive review of his work.

In the same years, the works of Philodemus on moral topics appeared. This ("On Vices and Virtues Opposing Them"). This treatise can be considered as a complement to the above-mentioned "Περί ηθων και βίων εκ τών Ζήνωνος σχολών". This also includes “Περί κολακείας” (“On flattery”). Flattery as a vice was already castigated by Epicurus and his closest disciples, pointing out its incompatibility with human dignity. The recourse to this vice in the Roman era is possibly due to the position of the Greeks and Philodemus himself in Italy. Almost simultaneously, the disgusting features of flattery and servility are revealed in the messages of Horace (1.17.10-15; 18.10-19), which may not be in direct connection with the influence of Philodemus, but is associated with general situation the time of the collapse of the republic and the rise of powerful individuals on whom the fate of the ordinary citizen now depended. Equally relevant at this time was the criticism of such a vice as arrogance, to which Philodemus dedicated a special essay “Περί ύπτρηφανίας” (РНерс. 1008). At the same time, the treatise “On Economics” appeared, polemically directed against the recommendations of Xenophon and Theophrastus and the need to extract the highest benefit from the economy, as well as against the life practice of the Cynics, who denied all property. Drawing on the works of Epicurus and his student Metrodorus, Philodemus calls for moderation, since wealth brings more dangers and inconveniences than pleasures, and the unbridled pursuit of profit deprives a thinking person of peace of mind. This line of behavior of the sage, formulated by Philodemus, is in connection with the idea of ​​the “golden mean” developed by the poets of the Augustan era. The same idea is developed by Philodemus in the treatise "Περί πλούτου", the first book of which was recently published.

To the moral writings of Philodemus in the same third quarter of the 1st century. BC e. His theological works were added. This is, first of all, a carefully developed and lengthy treatise, “How the Gods Live.” His first book interprets such a phenomenon as fear of the gods, and examines its causes; the third book characterizes the virtues of the gods and their way of life: it is paradoxical that the means of communication between the gods is declared Greek language. The treatise “Περί εύαεβείας” (PHerc. 433; 1428) belongs to the same group of works, which contains criticism of the religious-mythological tradition represented by such authors as Homer, Pindar, Callimachus, Antimachus, used either directly or through retellings of Apollodorus. The theological works of Philodemus were often published in the first half of the 19th century. - while initially they were attributed to the Epicurean philosopher Phaedrus. The error was corrected by T. Gompertz after PHerc was studied. 1428 and compared the concept of the author of the treatise with the presentation of the theological views of the Epicureans by Cicero (Nat. Deor. I, 25-41). This allowed him to identify differences and similarities in the assessment of the place of the gods in the papyrus text and in Cicero, explaining the similarities using a common source - the work of Zeno (teacher of Philodemus) or Apollodorus (teacher of Zeno), who was called the “tyrant of the Garden.” The question of Cicero’s acquaintance with the theological works of Philodemus cannot yet be resolved.

Also dating back to the last period of Philodemus’ life are his works “The Ethical Treatise of Comparetti” (РНерс. 1251), “On Signs and Designations” (РНерс. 1065), “On Death” (РНерс. 1050). The treatise “On Signs and Designations”, which has survived in its most complete form and with the best preservation, is not the only work of Philodemus on logic, this is shown by other scrolls preserved in fragments (РНерс. 671.861. 1003.1389), but, as they say, “a work in highest degree mature mind, theoretical and historical significance, while attracting the greatest attention due to the development of semiology in our time." The anti-Stoic orientation gives a lively character to the presentation.

A special place among the works of Philodemus is occupied by his treatise “On the Good King in Homer.” Revealing the Homeric ideal of a good king, Philodemus simultaneously glances at modern relationships and possibly provides support to Caesar.

Philodemus wrote his treatise “On Death” in four books after 50 BC. e., apparently under the influence of the early death of Lucretius or the tragic death of Cicero. According to A. Rostagni, the impetus for writing the treatise was given by the death of L. Varius Rufus, “little Virgil,” a friend of Virgil and Horace, who, together with other members of Maecenas’s circle, visited the Villa of the Papyri. Rostany believes that the short poem of Varius Rufus, known from quotes from Macrobius, was the fruit of listening to the lectures of Philodemus. Perhaps one of the “micro-societies” developed around Philodemus, which G. S. Knabe is studying. It was a group of friends united by common political views, love for philosophy and architecture. The Villa of the Papyri provided everything necessary for friendly communication, relaxation, literature and aesthetic enjoyment of the monuments of ancient art.

The soul of the “micro-society” was, undoubtedly, Philodemus himself - not only the bearer of a certain philosophical tradition, a teacher of wisdom, but also a person who had the gift of poetry and abilities literary critic. In the Greek Anthology, 30 epigrams are given under the name Philodemus, although perhaps not all actually belong to him. Erotic themes predominate. In terms of content, the epigrams do not justify the thematic diversity that Cicero speaks of (Pis. 70), however, the assessment of lascivus (playful, playful, lustful), which the commentator Asconius gives to Philodemus in a note to the indicated place by Cicero, fully corresponds to the content of Philodemus’ epigrams (Ascon. in Cic. Pis. 70).

Restored papyrus scroll with a work of Epicurus from the library of the Villa of the Papyri

This is, in the most general terms, the contents of the library of the Villa of the Papyri, such are the successes in the interpretation of texts discovered in the middle of the 18th century. But the Villa of the Papyri was not fully excavated. No one has doubted the presence of books in the unexcavated parts of the Villa of the Papyri since the time of Wiickelman. In the middle of the last century, the father of scientific geology, Charles Lyell, called for continuing the excavations of Herculaneum in order to search for new books, which inspired V.I. Vernadsky, but, as we now understand, fortunately, no one took up this work.

Only a hundred years later, science was prepared to resume excavations, and assumptions about upcoming finds began to be made. In particular, there is confidence in the existence of a room with Latin books, based on the presence of several Latin papyri among the Greek papyri discovered in the 18th century, including a poem by an unknown author about the Battle of Actium. Of course, it is difficult to imagine that a Roman noble (and the villa, of course, did not belong to the Greek Philodemus), be it one of the Pisoes or the Claudius Pulchers, did not possess a collection of Latin books. At that time, it was the custom to have separate Latin and Greek libraries (for example, in Rome - the Palatine and Ulpiian libraries), and this custom could also extend to the distribution of books from private collections.

M. Gigante in 1985 believed that new works of Stoic philosophers would soon be found, because what has been found so far does not correspond to the place occupied in Rome by Stoicism, which began to spread in the 2nd century. BC e. Gigante also had no doubt that the works of Ennius would be found. This confidence is based on the new identification of the bust, in which in the 18th century. they saw Seneca, then the owner of the villa Calpurnius Piso, then Callimachus, Lucretius, Hesiod and, finally, most recently, Ennius. This bust was identified with Ennius by Helga von Heintze, who drew attention to the character of the Roman relief of the poet's apotheosis, depicted next to a woman with a covered head, perhaps a muse.

Another way of identifying the texts that comprised the library of the Villa of the Papyri is by studying the works of Philodemus. His treatise "On Poems" contains a critical review of Timaeus, a writer well known and read in the 1st century. BC e. It is difficult to imagine that Philodemus gave a second-hand reference to this author without having him in his library. One might think that, along with the room for philosophical books there were one or more rooms for historical books - both Greek and Latin. If this is so, then the appearance of busts of Hellenistic rulers, including those associated with Rome, is explained not by the considerations expressed by Pandermalis, Soron and Wojcik, but by the special interest of the owner of the Villa of Papyri in history.

Historical parallels speak against the one-sidedness in the collection of the library, which can be judged by the current composition of its books, in particular the material on Hellenistic libraries, including philosophical ones, collected in the monograph by T. V. Blavatsky.

The plan for the final liberation of the Villa of the Papyri from the multi-ton thickness of petrified mud and ash is presented by G. Gollini in the introduction to the XIV volume of the Herculaneum Chronicles. It is also known that the International Congress of Papyrology in Oxford guaranteed financial support for this project. The goal is to complete the excavations in order to beginning of XXI V. this structure would appear as a complete architectural complex, in the words of Marcello Gigante, “fully visible and giving aesthetic pleasure.” Particular hopes are placed on a shuttle-type mechanism (navette), which digs trenches without touching monuments. “The resumption of excavations,” continues Gigante, “will help restore the most luxurious villa of all known to us - perhaps not only in Campania, but in the entire Latin world - both in terms of sculptural decoration and furniture, but especially thanks to the library, which is evidence of the synthesis of theory and practices fine arts with written tradition."

Excavations of the Villa of the Papyri, supervised by the Academy of Archaeology, Literature and Fine Arts of Naples and the Herculaneum Academy, resumed in January 1986. So far there have been no reports of new papyri being found, but archaeological sites have already begun to emerge. Among them is a magnificent bronze bust of Herodotus, unveiled on April 22, 1987. There are also reports of columns and parts of a mosaic floor being found. All this confirms the assumption that the villa in the mid-18th century. was not fully excavated, and allows us to expect new finds, including papyrus.

De Simone A. La villa dei Papiri. Rapporto preliminare, gennaio 1986 - marzo 1987 // CErc. 1987. 17. P. 15-37.

The illustrations in the text are mine. YU.