Ancient Egyptian civilization during the Middle Kingdom. Ancient Egypt. Culture of a mysterious civilization. History of Ancient Egypt

6000 thousand years ago or 4000 thousand years BC, settlements began to form in the Nile River Valley (Northeast of the African continent). The basis of these settlements was one clan - these settlements became the cradle of ancient Egypt.

The civilization of ancient Egypt briefly went the following way: from the formation of settlements on the banks of the river, to the creation united state with a population of several million people, an army, a single religion and headed by an absolute monarch - the pharaoh, God's viceroy on earth.

The rise of Egypt as a state, of course, contributed to the geographical position of the country.

Despite the proximity of the desert, life gave and supported the Nile. After its spill, fertile silt remained on the banks, on which fields were cultivated, and the rich water world of the river gave a lot of various fish to the table of people.

For more efficient use of river wealth and the gifts of oases, settlements combined human and material resources to build irrigation systems, cultivate fields, and defend against Libyan and Nubian raiders. With the enlargement, an administrative superstructure appeared, in the form of priests. It was the priests who acted as the organizers of the first Egyptian states. They organized the collection of taxes, carried out calendar calculations for the movement of the Nile, designed irrigation and irrigation systems, and organized defense.
The established states - Upper and Lower Egypt, were united by the king of Upper Egypt - Menes.
At the head of the united state stood the pharaoh, the sole ruler and "son of God."
In its development, the civilization of ancient Egypt, in short, was one of the most ancient in the Mediterranean region. The divine origin of the pharaoh was the basis of the religion of the Egyptians. From our point of view, they were pagans. They revered the Sun God Ra as their main god. According to their beliefs, God Ra, came out of the lotus and built the whole world, surrounding people, all other gods were a continuation of the God Ra, and people appeared from his eyes. The Egyptians also sacredly believed in the eternity of life, and that the physical death of a person does not interrupt the path of a person, but simply transfers him to another state. This is what played a big role in the development of culture and architecture. The greatest buildings built by the incredible efforts of the ancient Egyptians are the tombs of the pharaohs.

It is also difficult to overestimate the importance scientific discoveries made in ancient Egypt. The civilization of ancient Egypt, in short, gave the world a solution to the Pythagorean theorem, long before Pythagoras himself, the Egyptians knew the number Pi (3.1415). They compiled one of the first calendars.
In the history of Ancient Egypt, there were ups and downs, there were devastating wars, there were times of general prosperity. In conclusion, we can say that without the Civilization of ancient Egypt, our world would be different.

Ancient Egypt lasted the longest time compared to other civilizations in the world. The heyday of the empire is marked in the period from 3000 to 1000 BC, however, the pharaohs ruled for centuries.

Egypt took over as the leading power in the Middle East from 612 to 525 BC after it liberated the country from foreign invaders.

He received the status of pharaoh, which meant the continuation of the tradition of ancient Egypt. In 305 BC appointed commander Ptolemy became an independent ruler of the country. The dynasty ruled until 31 AD. death of Queen Cleopatra. After that, Egypt was conquered by the Roman Empire and became its province.

History of Ancient Egypt

The culture of the country has undergone significant changes. The period of history since the beginning of the founding of civilization in 3000 B.C. before the conquest by the Romans in 31 BC, was almost three thousand years.

Egypt is located in the Nile Valley in northeastern Africa. Civilization originated in Upper Egypt, on the territory of the cities of Abydos and Hirakonpolis. Then the power of the pharaohs spread to the north in the city of Memphis and the Mediterranean.

By 3000 B.C. the united kingdom of Egypt occupied the entire valley of the Nile north of the first cataract of the Nile in the south - a cataract, next to modern Sudan.

By 1250 B.C. Ancient Egypt occupied lands in the north near the Assyrian kingdom and in the east to the Red Sea, in the south - along the Nile to, in the west - to the Libyan Desert

The life of the population of Egypt was centered around the Nile River and the fertile lands along its banks. Farmers in the Nile Valley have developed irrigation methods to control the flow of water during seasonal floods and to irrigate during the dry season.

The valley lands were so rich in crops that there was a surplus of agricultural crops. With the proceeds from their sale, incredible architectural projects were erected, like the pyramids of Giza and the temples of Luxor. The elite grew rich, foreign trade and diplomacy developed. A rich reward was offered for waging wars of conquest.

The main achievements of civilization were:

• the invention of hieroglyphs;
• creation of a management system;
• the emergence of the science of mathematics;
• development of industry;
• the invention of irrigation technologies and efficient agricultural practices;
• organization of the judiciary.

The control system of ancient Egypt

In ancient Egypt, one of the first state apparatuses was created - the government exercising power on the territory of the entire state. The Sumerian civilization consisted of several city-states with a population of several dozen each. They had their own script. In a united Egypt, the power of the government extended to thousands of square meters with a population of several million inhabitants.

The pharaoh was considered both the political leader and the center. He bore the status of "ruler of two lands." This meant that he ruled Upper and Lower Egypt. He was also called the "high priest of every temple", as he was considered the main cult for worship on earth. In the eyes of the ancient Egyptians, the power of the pharaoh extended between heaven and earth. How well the pharaoh was, determined the state of the country and its people.

The pharaoh was responsible for military support and border protection. With the threat of the seizure of territories, he collected. Tribute was collected from the conquered lands - valuable gifts and war trophies.

Officials helped to manage the pharaoh: scribes, overseers, ministers and courtiers. The vizier, an approximate court, received great power. He represented the pharaoh in resolving issues in the treasury, in resolving justice and in the administration of lands. The control was carried out both over wealthy citizens and the poorest peasants. The land of Egypt was divided into nomes - administrative regions. Each region was ruled by a Nomarch.

Temples were used as places of worship, granaries and treasuries for storing grain and goods.

Egyptian army in antiquity

The armament of the army of ancient Egypt were:

• bows and arrows;
• spears;
• round shields;
• wooden frames made of stretched animal skin.

Weapons and armor were made of bronze. Shields were made of hardwood with a bronze buckle, spears with tips were used. During the period of the New Kingdom, chariots were introduced into the army.
The pharaohs followed on horseback as the head of the army. Many kings went into battle personally to justify the hopes of the people, although this was not always safe for them.
The first duty of the army was to defend Egypt against foreign invasion. The most difficult was to ensure safety and near Nubia, where important trade routes passed.

Religion of ancient Egypt

The ancient Egyptians adhered to the pagan faith. They worshiped many cults, which included Ra (the Sun), Isis (nature and magic), Horus (protected in war), Osiris (ruled in the kingdom of the dead).

The number of figures to worship and their meanings have changed over time. Worship or refusal to perform rituals in honor of certain gods reflected the political developments in Egypt. For example, when the rulers came to power, the event was marked by the founding of the New Kingdom. Amon, united by Ra, was put at the head, so Amon-Ra turned out.

Worship was conducted in temples, rituals were introduced by priests. Usually the figure of the cult was placed in a closed room. Only on special occasions was it shown to the people. Each house had its own statue, which was worshiped by family members. Amulets and pendants were worn to ward off the evil eye.

Religious ideas about the afterlife of the ancient Egyptians also changed over time. Initially afterlife associated with the preservation of the physical body. As the idea of ​​the underworld developed, the priests came to the conclusion that in addition to the material shell, there is a spirit that also travels to another world. Some people became disembodied souls wandering the earth. For good deeds, a person could become “blessed”. In the other world, he was promised a life of goodness and abundance.

Life in ancient Egypt

As in all pre-industrial civilizations, the economy of Ancient Egypt was based on agriculture. Most of the population were peasant farmers. The fertile lands of the Nile Valley provided a constant income to the treasury, providing a luxurious life for the pharaoh, his ministers and numerous priests. The peasants gave away part of the harvest - they paid tribute. These funds were used to build pyramids and a temple along.

Agriculture in Egypt

Fertile lands stretched for several kilometers from the Nile River. On both sides, the valley is still surrounded by lifeless deserts. The flood season lasted from June to September, resulting in the formation of a fertile layer of silt on the lands. Flood waters were poured into reservoirs and preserved in ponds. After the water receded, the growing season began, lasting from October to February. Precipitation in Egypt was extremely rare, so the peasants irrigated the fields with river water from reservoirs and the river. For this, branches were built - channels that carried water to the fields.

Trade in Egypt

Trade within the state was carried out between cities located along the Nile River. For that time, the water route was much cheaper than the land route. Sales were carried out in local markets, valuable items were received by the administration of the nome or city. However, the Egyptian cities, unlike the Sumerian ones, did not have independence. The largest settlement was the city of Memphis, the capital of ancient Egypt.

In the Bronze Age, trade between states was carried out in the form of an exchange or "gift" for the ruler of another civilization. Before the development of caravan routes across the Sahara, the Nile Valley was the only center through which goods traveled from South Africa north to the Mediterranean countries.

Expeditions went far south, to the territory of modern Sudan and the Red Sea, in search of exotic goods: ivory, gold, ostrich feathers and "black" slaves. This property was highly valued in the international space. Providing such goods gave the advantage of political influence in the Middle East. Egypt acquired priority in the region before the Hittite and Syrian empires, among the states of Mesopotamia.

Natural resources of ancient Egypt

Egypt was rich in mineral resources widely exploited in ancient times. Limestone and granite were mined in the Nile Valley. Alabaster, carnelian and emeralds were mined in the Eastern Desert. Extensive gold mines were discovered in. Copper was smelted from malachite ore mined in the Sinai. In the Late Period, copper deposits were developed in Upper Egypt.

The listed minerals were mined in remote places of the eastern desert of Sinai. Their development required the departure of numerous scientific expeditions.

Periodization of the history of ancient Egypt

The history of ancient civilization is conditionally divided by modern historians into several periods:

• Pre-dynastic (early dynastic) period;
• Old kingdom;
• Middle Kingdom;
• New kingdom;
• Roman period.

The first pharaoh of ancient unified Egypt, the northern and southern lands, is considered.

The history of the existence of the ancient state of Egypt ended with the conquest of Egypt by the descendant of Julius Caesar, the emperor of Rome, Augustus (Octavian) in 30 BC. The last pharaoh was Cleopatra VII.

Periods of the history of ancient Egypt

Predynastic period

3500 BC - The first settlements in the Nile Valley
3400 BC
3300 BC
3200 BC
3100 BC — Hieroglyphic writing emerged. Pharaoh Narmer unified Lower and Upper Egypt.
3000 BC
2900 BC
2800 BC
2700 BC - Construction of the first stone.
2600 BC - The pyramids of Giza were erected.
2500 BC
2400 BC
2300 BC
2200 BC Egypt is ruled by several kings at the same time.
2100 BC 2055 BC - Pharaoh Menhotep II regained control over the territory of the entire state of Egypt
2000 BC -Development of agricultural technologies in .
The first halls of the city-temple of Karnak (modern Luxor) were built.
The Egyptians control Nubia.
1900 BC
1800 BC
1700 BC The Hyksos seized power in the Nile Delta.
1600 BC — Pharaoh Ahmose unites the country.
1500 BC Pharaoh Hatshepsut ascended the throne of Egypt.
1400 BC Akhenaten carried out a religious reform in Egypt.
Became a pharaoh.
Return to traditional religion: paganism and polytheism.
1300 BC A hypostyle hall was built in the temple of Karnak.
1247 - Ramses II wins the Battle of Kadesh.
1200 BC
1100 BC — Division into Upper and Lower Egypt.
1000 BC
900 BC
800 BC 728 BC Pius, king of Nubia, conquered Egypt.
700 BC 671 BC The Assyrians took over Egypt.
600 BC 525 BC The Persians occupied Egypt.
500 BC
400 BC 332 BC liberated Egypt.
305 BC - Ptolemy I formed a new dynasty of pharaohs of Egypt.

300 BC
200 BC 196 BC - The Rosetta Stone is written.
100 BC 31 BC - Battle of Actium.
30 BC - Pharaoh of Egypt Cleopatra VII died.
0
100 AD
200 AD
300 AD Last entry on .
400 AD
500 AD
600 AD 642 AD - Arab conquest of Egypt.
700 AD
800 AD 820 AD Caliph Al Ma'mun found the entrance to the Great Pyramid.
900 AD 969 - The city of Cairo is founded. The first stones were laid in the foundation of the capital from the pyramids of Giza.
1000 AD
1100 AD
1200 AD
1300 AD
1400 AD
1500 AD 1517 - Ottoman Turks rule Egypt.
1600 AD
1700 AD 1798 - Napoleon Bonaparte launched a military campaign into Egypt.
1799 - The Rosetta Stone is found.
1800 AD — Travelers and explorers go to see the buildings of Ancient Egypt
1822 - Egyptian script is deciphered.
1859-1869 - The Suez Canal was built.
Official excavations began and the science of Egyptology arose.

1900 AD 1922 - discovered the tomb of Tutankhamen.
1953 - Egypt gains independence.
1960 - Aswan Dam built.
2000 AD 2015 - The White Walls of Memphis are discovered.

History ancient Egypt: see

There is a proverb in Egypt: "Man is afraid of time, but time is afraid of the pyramids." And indeed, Egyptian pyramids so ancient that it is impossible to accurately determine their age. Interestingly, a variety of sources confirm that the Egyptian civilization is much older than we think.

630,000 years ago...

It is officially accepted that the history of civilized Egypt began around the fifth millennium BC. However, many sources give completely different dates and indicate that a developed civilization already existed in Egypt long before that time.

The famous Herodotus (484-425 BC), for example, in Euterpe (the second part of his famous History) wrote:

“Until now, the Egyptians and their priests have given me tales of ancient times. They explained to me that from the time of the first Egyptian king to this last priest of Hephaestus, 341 generations of people had passed, and during this time there had been as many high priests and kings.

But 300 generations is 10,000 years, counting three generations per century. Yes, in addition to 300, another 41 generations give 13,400 years.

These figures, given by the father of history, as Herodotus is called, far exceed those accepted in the official historiography of Egypt.

The Byzantine historian George Sinkell, who lived in the 8th century, also wrote quite interesting things about the ancient Egyptian dynasties: “The Egyptians have a certain plate called the “Old Chronicle”; it contains 30 dynasties over 113 generations over a period of 36,525 years. The first dynasty of princes is the Aurites, the second is the Mestroenes, the third is the Egyptians.

The famous philosopher and scientist Diogenes generally claimed that the Egyptians conducted astronomical observations almost 49,000 years before the appearance of Alexander the Great, who, by the way, was born in 356 BC.

And the Greek philosopher Simplicius of Cilicia, who lived in the 6th century AD, went even further and wrote that the Egyptians studied space for 630,000 years!

Story from a priest

And what did the Egyptians themselves write? Let us give the floor to Manetho, who lived in the III century BC, the high priest of the temple of the city of Heliopolis. This city (today Al-Mataria near Cairo) was considered the center of the scientific thought of Ancient Egypt. Many documents, papyri, tablets with hieroglyphs and other evidence of the past were stored here.

All this information allowed Manetho to write a unique "History of Egypt". It listed the various dynasties of Egyptian kings, compiled from authentic documents.

However, Manetho's work perished in a fire in the Alexandrian Library, along with many other priceless manuscripts. ancient world. From the "History" of Manetho, only a few passages have been preserved, which were quoted in the writings of the ancient historians Julius Africanus and Eusebius.

And this is what the history of Egypt looked like in the description of the priest.

“The first man (or God) in Egypt is Hephaestus, who is also known to the Egyptians as the discoverer of fire. The heir of his son Helios (the Sun) was Sosis, then in turn Kronos, Osiris, Typhon, brother of Osiris, and finally Horus, son of Osiris and Isis. They were the first rulers of Egypt. After that, the royal power passed from one to another, without interruption, up to Beedis for 13,900 years.

Then gods and demigods ruled for 1255 years, and again for 1817 years another royal family gained power in the country. Then another thirty Memphis kings ruled for 1790 years, and after them another 10 kings for 350 years. Then came the reign of the "spirits of the dead", which lasted 5813 years.

Agree that these numbers do not correspond to what we know about Ancient Egypt.

Papyrus from Luxor

The Turin papyrus also confirms the existence of the most ancient rulers of Egypt. It was purchased in 1820 in Luxor by the Italian Bernardino Drovetti and taken to Turin, where it is kept to this day. Papyrus was originally about 170 centimeters long, but crumbled into several fragments during transportation.

The time of its manufacture is not exactly known, but on the back there is the name of Ramesses III, who ruled in 1185-1153 BC. This papyrus lists the names of all Egyptian kings and pharaohs, and it is obvious that this list was copied from more ancient sources.

The dynasties listed in it are much wider than those known to science. It is curious that the list begins with the dynasty of gods: Ptah, Amon, Anubis, Ibis, Apis, Mnevis and others.

The most curious thing: only in 2009 it was announced that several previously unknown papyrus fragments were found in the storerooms of the Turin Museum. This begs the question: why was such a rarity forgotten for so many years and what is written in these found pieces? It is possible that there we are talking about some even more ancient dynasties.

T Here, in Italy, the Palermo stone is kept, taken out of Egypt under unknown circumstances.

For a long time he lay in the Palermo museum, without causing any interest. And only in late XIX century, this ancient black basalt slab attracted the attention of researchers, and the stone began to be studied in detail.

It turned out that the names of the mysterious ancient rulers of Egypt are listed on it. And later it turned out that this stone is one of the similar ones, so somewhere there are similar steles with carved names of the rulers of Egypt, who lived many, many millennia ago.

Dendera Temple

However, the most curious evidence that the civilization of Ancient Egypt is much older than one can imagine is stored in the Dendera temple.

More precisely, it was kept, because the enterprising Europeans, who plundered Egypt in past centuries, took this evidence out of the country in its entirety.

We are talking about the famous ceiling in the Dendera temple, which so impressed the French that they sent it entirely to Paris. Now it is kept in the Louvre, and an exact copy has been recreated in the temple. This ceiling depicts the zodiac circle of amazing beauty.

But the most curious thing about this ceiling turned out later - the signs of the zodiac on it depict the stars in the position in which they were approximately 90,000 years before our era! So those who created this zodiac circle clearly saw another sky above them...

Stolen piece

And recently, a sensational piece of news was printed in the media, which confirms that the Egyptian civilization is much older than one can imagine. In Egypt, an almost curious incident occurred that proved that the pyramids were indeed built earlier than is commonly believed.

The official history claims that the construction of the pyramid of Cheops was completed around 2540 BC. And so two German students climbed inside this pyramid, broke off a piece, secretly took it out of the country and checked its age in Germany. It turned out that this piece is more than 20 thousand years old! And it is still not known exactly how many thousands of years more - it is possible that very, very much.

But since the method of obtaining information by students turned out to be, to put it mildly, illegal, research did not receive the usual development - how can one rely on a piece stolen and smuggled out to prove the antiquity of the pyramids?

So nothing has changed in the official historiography of Egypt so far - and scientists bypass all the secrets of the past ...

Natalia TRUBINOVSKAYA

Approximately simultaneously with the transition to the highest stage of sociality in the development of the early earthly communities of Mesopotamia, similar processes took place in the northeastern part of Africa, where the ancient Egyptian civilization consisted. The territory of modern Egypt has been inhabited since the Paleolithic. In that era, North Africa was a huge expanse of the steppe, while Europe lay bound by glaciers. Until the time of the emergence of the ancient Egyptian civilization, that is, 4 thousand years BC. e., the climate changed dramatically, turning the narrow Nile valley with a swampy delta into an oasis, surrounded on all sides by deserts. its main territory was not large - only 50 thousand square meters. km. Greek historian and traveler Herodotus in the 5th century. BC e. called Egypt "a gift from the Nile". Indeed, no other geographical factor had such a fundamental influence on the formation of the Egyptian order of life and history as this great river. The White Nile originates from the lakes of central Africa, and the Blue Nile from the mountains of Ethiopia, which merge at Khartoum and rush together to the north, where the delta leads them to the Mediterranean Sea. Unlike the Tigris in Mesopotamia, water rarely brought death and destruction, but, above all, acted as a force of creation. The Egyptians never feared their great river in the same way that the inhabitants of Mesopotamia feared their great gods.

If the Tigris and Euphrates, as well as their tributaries, cut Mesopotamia into isolated areas, then the Nile contributed to the unification of the country. The river served as the main route and facilitated communications throughout the valley. In the process of movement of certain groups of migrants to the lowlands, stable agricultural communities were formed. At 3100 BC. e. there were about 40 such communities, and they were in constant contact with each other. Thus the contact facilitated by the Nile ensured the early political unification of Egypt. This was facilitated by the fact that Egypt was inhabited by a single people who belonged to the Semitic-Hamitic group and spoke a single language with numerous dialects.

This country could boast of almost complete self-sufficiency. In addition to fertile soil, it had huge reserves of stone, which was a material for construction and sculpture. For pottery - a lot of clay, and for jewelry, in particular, jewelry - gold. The materials that were missing were within reach. The Egyptians could get copper from Sinai, wood from Lebanon. So, they had little reason to look to the outside world for their basic needs, which helps explain the isolation of Egyptian life.

isolation from outside world geography also contributed. Deserts stretched east and west of the Nile Valley. The Nubian desert and the Nile rapids averted the threat of attack from the south. Only in the north did the Mediterranean leave Egypt vulnerable. Thus, geographical factors protected the country from external invasions and immigration. Unlike the inhabitants of Mesopotamia, whose history is full of turbulence with constant wars and transformations from conquerors to conquered, the Egyptians enjoyed centuries of peace and quiet, during which they could direct most of the resources to develop their own peculiar civilization. its history is marked by an almost unbelievable permanence for those times.

However, Egypt was not completely closed, there was a certain mutual exchange with other communities. In particular, scientists believe that already in the 4th millennium BC. e. some technologies and materials came here from Mesopotamia. The cuneiform writing system had its influence on Egyptian life (it is known that the Egyptian pharaohs conducted diplomatic correspondence using cuneiform writing). There were times when northern Egypt was ruled by foreign invaders (the Hyksosi from 1680 to 1560 BC). Thus, foreign influences, although episodic, enriched Egyptian culture without fundamentally changing it.

It was an ancient agricultural culture based on irrigation, since there was little natural rainfall, and in many parts of Egypt, rains in general are an unknown phenomenon. However, every summer the Nile flooded due to the melting of snow in the mountains. Annual floods have become the main mechanism that predetermined the functioning of the economy and set the pace for all life on the banks of the Nile. It was the flood of the great river that gave the Egyptians a natural starting point for the beginning of the year, and their 365-day calendar became the direct predecessor of the one used by the modern Westernized world.

The floods of the Nile brought a lot of water and fertile eluvial silt, but then the dry season came and it was necessary to distribute the water stored in advance to the lans. In the then sparsely populated world, the Egyptians, like ants, swarmed on their humus land. With hard work they overcame swamps overgrown with sedge and reeds, wild animals and predators that lived in the water and near it. They could overcome everything only by joining forces. The people who settled here early realized the importance of order and hard work: the one who does not dig and carry the soil along with everyone else, does not dig canals, does not build dams, will be crushed: the land will either get so much water that it will be the sown grain will perish, or the hall will be completely without water, and everything will dry up. Hard work paid off: the Egyptians had time to harvest two crops by the winter. They collected much more grain than was necessary to meet their own needs, so later the Greeks, Romans and other peoples received a significant part of their food supply from Egypt.

The population of Egypt began to engage in agriculture as early as the 5th millennium BC. The first cereal crops were barley and emer wheat. At the turn of the V-IV millennium BC. e. significant progress has been made in the development of the productive forces. The technical improvement of stone tools and the emergence of new metal tools, namely copper ones, made it possible to produce a much larger number of hoes, adzes, and axes from wood and stone, which were necessary for agricultural work in cutting bushes, which significantly increased labor productivity. Subsequently, real cultivated wheat was added to the first crops, which was successfully grown under conditions of an improved irrigation system, as well as lentils, beans, peas, sesame, and flax. Gardens and orchards were a real miracle of Ancient Egypt. They were located not on fertile soil, since all the lands available for natural and artificial irrigation were allocated for crops, but on the edge of deserts and in elevated areas. Water for irrigation was taken from artificially created ponds and wells.

The Egyptians also grew grapes and were engaged in beekeeping. They loved flowers, collected them in bouquets and decorated themselves with them, as well as donkeys. their favorite flowers were lotuses that covered ponds and lakes (this flower was considered sacred), as well as cornflowers growing in the fields. However, flowers were specially grown in gardens.

Of great importance in the Egyptian economy is little animal husbandry, in which dairy and meat directions stood out. In addition, working cattle was used in agriculture as a transport. The Egyptians raised cows and bulls, sheep, pigs, donkeys. From the 16th century BC e., began to use horses, but only for military affairs. They borrowed this practice from nomadic Asian tribes who broke into the country from Asia. From them, the Egyptians learned the science of breeding and keeping this valuable animal. The horse in ancient Egypt was never used as a pack or draft force in agriculture or construction. Even later - during the Persian rule, which began at the end of the 6th century. BC e., the Egyptians began to breed camels, which in modern Egypt have become the most common livestock. In addition, for the transport of goods, even in military affairs, donkeys were used - hardy animals, but sometimes stubborn, which was even reflected in the reliefs and paintings in the tombs. The peculiarity of ancient Egyptian animal husbandry was that in the herd, along with domestic animals, they kept tamed or tamed desert animals: gazelles, antelopes and even hyenas. Domestic poultry farming appeared and developed. For a long time, hunting and fishing were of great importance in economic life. Moreover, roast hyena meat was considered a dish for an aristocrat, and the fish that thunk was considered a poor man. In general, the diet of an ordinary Egyptian consisted mainly of grain and vegetable dishes, in which game, fish or poultry were occasionally added. It is believed that the ancient Egyptians were one of the healthiest peoples of the ancient world. However, infant mortality was very high, and quite common diseases - rickets, cancer, syphilis, as evidenced by burials.

In the middle of the 5th millennium BC. in the Nile Valley, there was a transition from an attractive to a vibrational way of farming, because the leading role was played not by gatherers and hunters, but by farmers and pastoralists. The improvement of labor tools, where copper was increasingly used, contributed to an increase in the level of skill. Soon bronze and iron appeared in Egypt, but iron was very rare for a long time. It was first invented by the Hittites, who for a long time tried to keep the secret of iron processing. The process of separating crafts from agriculture began, which is very important, given the transition to the stage of civilization, because behind this was the emergence of an early class city as its most diverse manifestation. Crafts developed in several directions. In addition to the processing of metals, wood and stone, construction, especially shipbuilding, became of great importance (important considering that the river served as the basis of communication in the country). In pottery, dishes were made not only from clay, but also faience and glass. High level subsequently, jewelry skill reached, since both men and women of Ancient Egypt adorned themselves with a variety of amulets, necklaces, bracelets, rings, etc. with pleasure. Jewelry performed not only aesthetic, but also magical functions and acted as signs of social status. For example, wide collars made of beads were worn by officials and priests as evidence of special merit.

An important sign of the social usefulness of a person was her marriage. It should be noted that in the society and family of the times of Ancient Egypt, a woman occupied a special place, had more independence and enjoyed a higher status than anywhere else. This is especially true for women from wealthy segments of the population. To a certain extent, this is evidenced by numerous images that have come down to us in ancient paintings and reliefs. On them - many beautiful women in exquisite jewelry with cosmetics (which, by the way, occupied an honorable place in the Egyptian trade) are depicted next to their men in throne rooms, on walks, in gardens, etc. Respect for a woman - mother and wife - is imprinted in many literary texts. There are many stories of love and family life, from which it follows that the ideal standard for society was a relationship of subtle eroticism, relaxation and informality, something like the emotional equality of a man and a woman.

If in the Mesopotamian civilization a person could take a girl for a “marriage gift” to a future father-in-law without her consent, then in Egypt young people enjoyed freedom of choice. However, the marriage contract was also important here - a written agreement that protected the rights of each of the spouses. It provided for the possibility of divorce, and either party could initiate it. If a man acted in such a role, then he returned to his wife her dowry and part of what they had acquired in marriage together. If a woman, then she received only half of her dowry. It is difficult to generalize about such a long period as was the time of the Egyptian civilization, but it gives the impression of a society in which there was a possibility of personal expression of a woman, which cannot be found in many peoples who existed later.

Unlike the Mesopotamians, the Egyptians were cheerful, although they also faced the prospect of retribution for their sins, of which there were 42. The most terrible was the violation of the main commandments, namely:

o not to enter the temple in a sinful state and with an unclean body;

o not lie or slander anyone;

o do not steal, do not kill people, do not dissolve your hands;

o restrain your heart, close your mouth;

o do not betray with someone else's wife, etc.

For their behavior during their lives, as the ancient Egyptians believed, they would have to answer at the posthumous court in the god Osiris. It can be concluded that in their lives they were guided by certain established moral principles of coexistence. To deviate from moral norms meant dooming oneself to a miserable existence in the other world.

Ideas about life after death were part of the complex, sometimes conflicting religious beliefs of the ancient Egyptians, which are not strongly influenced. environment. The Egyptian climate is so stable that all changes are cyclical and regular. Although the summer heat bakes the earth, yet the Nile always overflows and revives it. Dry air retains much of what is doomed to decay by many other climatic conditions. Thus, the spirit of constancy reigned in Egypt, and the past did not differ much from the present.

This cyclical rhythm also permeated religious beliefs. According to them, Osiris, the god of fertility, by association with the Nile, dies every year. And every year his wife Isis brings him back to life (the theme of resurrection after death from this beautiful legend was later repeated in the sacraments present in other religions, in particular in the Christian one). Osiris became the king of the dead, who, according to ancient beliefs, weighed the human heart of each dead person in order to determine whether a person lived rightly in order to deserve eternal life after death. Osiris' guardianship over the dead was shared by Anubis, the jackal-headed god who annually helped Isis revive Osiris. Anubis was the god of mummification, an important part of funeral rites.

Unlike other peoples, the Egyptians believed in the possibility of a pleasant existence in the other world, so they paid great attention to preparing what might be needed "in life". Since ancient times, the Egyptians buried their dead not in the moisture-saturated lands of the Nile Valley, but on the edges of neighboring deserts, where the corpses wrapped in mats remained almost unchanged for a long time, because the sand dried them up. This probably contributed to the emergence of the belief that the afterlife of the soul is possible only if the body is preserved. The invisible double of the visible person - his soul - can return to the body, but dies when it has nowhere to return. To preserve the body of the deceased from decay, a complex procedure for embalming and making a mummy was developed. Mummies were thought to be the home of the "ka", the counterpart of the soul. According to the description left by the ancient Greek writer Diodorus, dated to the 1st century BC. n. e., when the king died, mourning was imposed on the whole country for 72 days. This duration is due to the duration of the embalming technology. For example, only in a special alkaline solution, the future mummy should be exactly 40 days. In addition, there are many other operations that should keep the flesh from decay. Among them are the extraction of internal organs and moving them into special vessels, pouring special resins into the body, wrapping long scrolls of cloth soaked in the necessary solutions that were supposed to prevent smoldering, putting a special mask on the face and laying the mummy in one or more sarcophagi. The mummy itself was moved to a special tomb, the construction of which spent more money than an ordinary residential building. The greatest tombs in the history of mankind were the pyramids of Ancient Egypt, which, as most researchers and researchers believe, were built for the burial of the supreme rulers of the state - the pharaohs.

The Egyptians called their king Pharaoh. The word comes from per "o - in translation, a big house. The name and title of the Egyptian king were considered sacred, and therefore they were not called without a compelling need, but they spoke allegorically. Under his rule, a rather rapid political unification of the country took place, which was largely facilitated by geographical unity Egypt.An important circumstance - unlike Sumer, Egypt was easier to move on to the management of large territories, because there were no city-states, as in Mesopotamia at the dawn of civilization.Egyptian primary "cities" were rather marketplaces for peasants, and the basis for the formation of later agricultural communities became provinces.Although politically Egypt was united seven centuries earlier, yet for a long time and later it had a very limited experience of city life.8 given that the influence of cities was not as strong as in Mesopotamia, the vast majority of the population were villagers who used cities and temples to as ritual centers, not places of residence. Ancient Egypt was a country of villages, small trading cities and a few religious and administrative centers such as Thebes and Memphis.

At the dawn of its history, Egypt consisted of separate regions or nomes, which eventually united into two kingdoms - the Upper (Nile Valley) and the Lower (Nile Delta). After a long war, usual for those times, the Upper Kingdom won. The details of the unification process are shrouded in darkness, but it is known that a ruler named Min (Greek: Less) was able to create a single kingdom around 3000 BC. e. True, legends about the "beginning" and "end" have been preserved. They say that his own dogs drove Mina to Lake Merido, which lay near Shla. There he would have died, but the crocodile took him in his mouth and carried him to the other side. At the place where the king set foot on land, he founded a city as a sign of his salvation and ordered crocodiles to be worshiped in it (in the Egyptian religion, as a relic of totemism, there were many cults of animals, birds and even plants). Strong dams protected the main city of the united state - Memphis - from the floods of the Nile. they were also ordered to be built by the first ruler. However, the river took revenge on the one who tried to conquer it: after the 60-year reign of the old pharaoh, a hippopotamus was dragged into the water. It should be noted that the image of Ming was left when he was digging the canal. This indicates that the main function of the ruler was to manage the economic life of the country. It was believed that it was the pharaoh who controls the annual rise and fall of the water in the Nile, that is, life itself. The first rituals were associated with agriculture: the fertility of the land, irrigation and the development of new sites.

Ming founded the first ruling dynasty, after which the ancient Egyptians divided their history with dynasties, of which there were 31. Subsequently, Egyptologists divided it into periods, the first of which was the Early Kingdom (XXX-XXVIII centuries BC), it accounts for the reign two dynasties. Already during the time of the kings of the first dynasty, the Egyptians began to move beyond the borders of their country, and during the time of the pharaoh of the second dynasty, Khasekhem, the country was finally united into a centralized state. The pharaoh became the focal point of religious and political life, the supreme steward of the wealth, resources and people of all of Egypt. The power of the pharaoh was such that the Egyptians considered him the human incarnation of the falcon-god Horus. The connection between the pharaoh and the god Thor was very important. On the one hand, Horus was the son of Osiris, the king of the dead, which meant: the pharaoh is a living god on earth, he became one with Osiris after death. On the other hand, the pharaoh played the role of not just an intermediary between the gods and the Egyptian people. He was the force that ensured the integration between gods and people, between nature and society, that is, the force that ensured peace and prosperity for the lands of the Nile. Thus, the pharaoh became a guarantor for his people, a guarantee that the gods of Egypt, unlike the gods of Mesopotamia, took care of their people.

In the XXVII century. BC e. (from about 2660 BC) the period of the Old Kingdom begins, which lasted until the XXII century. BC e. (2180 BC). At this time, the Egyptian kings of the third - sixth dynasties are constantly at war. Colossal power is concentrated in their hands, the economic basis of which was huge land funds, labor and food resources. The state acquired the character of a typical oriental despotism with an extensive bureaucracy. At the bottom rung of the socio-economic hierarchy stood the common people - peasants, artisans, slaves - who were in complete obedience to cruel and greedy officials. Nobody was happy about the arrival of the taxman. Firstly, because of the need to give away about a fifth of the crop, and secondly, the fiscals often behaved very rudely. On the other hand, everyone, no matter how low he stood in the system of social stratification, had the right to appeal. This was reflected in one of the most beloved ancient Egyptian legends - about the eloquent peasant. The hero of the story Hunanup was robbed by a servant of an official, and the victim had to complain to that official himself. When he postponed his decision, Hunanup openly accused him of neglecting his official duties. The pharaoh himself, as they say, ordered the official to pay tribute to the plaintiff, and the case was decided in favor of the peasant. This indicates that the fate of each official was completely in the hands of the pharaoh. An official who did not fulfill his task could lose everything, even his children became servants. Therefore, he was interested in his subordinates zealously and carefully doing their work, since his position, time and life itself depended on the good work of his subordinates. the highest official took their children to work only after he was convinced that they had the necessary training. Further advancement of the young official on the career ladder was determined by His abilities and knowledge.

It should be emphasized that education was a big divide in ancient Egyptian society: it was divided into educated people who could get into public service, and the rest. Among the officials themselves, not only their property differences were important, but, above all, their level of education. Getting an education in the schools that existed at the temples was a very difficult task. The training lasted 12 years. First of all, they taught to read, write and count. The common people remained illiterate. Among the officials, the attitude towards education was different, because in those days the pharaohs handed out positions and titles to their entourage for services to the state. These positions and titles were guaranteed for life and even remained in the family forever, therefore they were inherited. However, this did not happen if the person behaved unworthily, or if the heir did not have proper training. The training of people who were to be engaged in government, construction, treatment, in the old Egyptian civilization was approached very seriously. Officials must regularly keep records of everything collected in the fields and produced in the workshops, redistribute it, make laws, bring the orders of the pharaoh to the attention of the people and achieve their implementation, conduct court cases, draw up marriage contracts, manage work on the irrigation system and construction, etc. d.

The period of the Old Kingdom is characterized by the rapid development of stone construction, which culminated in the construction of the famous pyramids. This is the only one from the classic list of wonders of the world that has survived to this day. On the plateau west of the Nile, near Giza, rise the three main Great Pyramids. The first of them was built by the order of Pharaoh Khufu (Greek Cheops), the second - by his son or brother Khafre (or Khafre), the third - by the grandson of Menkaur (Mykerin). However, it should be noted that much more pyramids of different sizes were erected: in our time, a little less than a hundred of them have been discovered. Pyramids were built from the 18th to the 16th centuries, BC. e. Extreme simplicity, combined with gigantic size, still produces an amazing feeling of grandeur and eternity. Arab writer who lived in the 13th century. wrote: "Everything on earth is afraid of time, and time is afraid of the pyramids." Some argue that time inside the pyramids has its own movement, that the pyramids were supposed to stop the time of decay of the bodies of the pharaohs buried there. On the other hand, it was with the help of the pyramids that time was first measured. By measuring the shadow from the pyramid of Cheops, oriented to the cardinal points, the position of the Earth and the Sun, the length of the year and day were determined. The first year measured in this way was 2436 BC. e.

Initially, the pyramid of Cheops was 146.6 m high, but now it is 9 m lower, since its top has collapsed (the height of Khafre's pyramid was at first 136.5 m, and Menkaur's - 66 m). Each of the sides at the base is 233 m long. To get around it, you need to walk almost a kilometer. It is estimated that 2 million 300 thousand stone blocks were used for its construction, each weighing 2.5 tons. Thus, its total weight is 5,750,000 tons. These stones were delivered from remote areas. Herodotus said that the construction was carried out for almost 20 years. Every three months, the workers changed, their total number approached 100 thousand at the same time, and they worked for free. On the one hand, this indicates that the pharaoh could force them to do this. On the other hand, people themselves would like to take part in the construction, as if becoming involved in its immortality. The work was not only very difficult, but also very precise. The dimensions of each of the millions of blocks are maintained with an accuracy of 5 mm, and are so tightly fitted to each other that it was impossible to stick a knife blade between them. The sides of the pyramids are very equal: they do not bend more than a centimeter. Consequently, the builders of the pyramids possessed technologies that are still considered incredible today. On the other hand, modern scientists question this official calculation, because there was simply nowhere to take such a colossal amount of stones, and the blocks placed on top of each other would simply crush themselves. It is also argued that not a single, even the most brilliant, foreman would place 100 thousand people on the construction site.

Until our times, the pyramids remain one of the most mysterious mysteries of history. Even ancient historians, in particular Joseph Flavin, suggested that the pyramids embody all the wisdom accumulated by the ancient Egyptians. According to the modern English scientist G. Taylor, the dimensions, proportions and other parameters of the Great Pyramid symbolically encoded the mathematical and astronomical knowledge of the ancient Egyptian priests. Indeed, they knew how to use mysterious structures, for example, bringing large crowds to ecstasy. In XX - early XXI in. There are many versions regarding the origin and purpose of the ancient Egyptian pyramids, especially the largest of them. Among the most famous is the version that the pyramids were created by representatives of a different civilization than the earthly one; that they served as powerful energy generators or as part of an equally powerful irrigation system, etc. There are many unanswered questions. For example, why there are drains on the granite blocks of the temple in the Giza Valley near the pyramids. Why are they in a desert, arid climate? If they were made, were they necessary? It follows from this that the temple of the common complex was built before the radical climate change in this region. And this on the banks of the Nile could have happened no later than 8-10 thousand years ago (the time was established by the American geologist G. Schoch). But what about the pharaohs with their funeral cult? Modern Russian scientists, in particular A. Vasiliev, prove that the pyramid of Cheops is not made of stone blocks, but a rocky core lined on all sides. The inclined planes along which the builders pulled the sandstone blocks up were blocked off and turned into those internal manholes that tourists can walk through today visiting the Great Pyramid. It is also proved that the so-called chambers of the king and queen were never the burial place of Cheops and his wife, and the sarcophagus that is now in the king's chamber is fake. Neither the thieves of the past, nor the Egyptologists of the last two centuries have found a real tomb. And Cheops is still in it.

However, the following assumption remains the most likely: behind the ancient ideas for the pharaoh in his house, both during life and after death, it is not enough to be worthy of a god, therefore the pyramids are considered royal tombs. They were supposed to demonstrate the power and high status of the pharaoh, and his ability to manage the resources and manpower necessary to create a huge pyramid fully demonstrates the absolute power of the king-god.

The religious importance of the pyramid is as impressive as the political one. The pharaoh in the role of god was the "earthly sun", and the pyramid that rested against the sky was supposed to help him rise to the sky after death. The pyramid had to keep the body from destruction, so that there was a "home" for the ka of the supreme ruler. As an additional measure, a statue of the pharaoh made of hard stone was erected. In case something happened to his mummy, the statue would help "save his ka". The need for similarity (so that the ka does not miss and hit where it should) explains the naturalism of the portraits. In the artistic depiction of the pharaohs, thoroughness is combined with the abstract in an attempt to capture the essence of a living person. This approach is due to the fascinating property of Egyptian sculpture: very vital portraits of people, full of solemn timeless peace.

To survive in the afterlife, the ka needed everything that the pharaoh used during his lifetime: food and drink, servants and guards, herds of cattle and precious jewelry. In ancient times, servants and shepherds, along with their flocks, were sacrificed at the tomb. During the Old Kingdom, artists replaced living people with statues of officials, scribes, soldiers, and servants. To remind ka of earthly life, the artists covered the walls of the tomb with images of various events: from agricultural work to feasts and religious holidays, from hunting trips to the delights of gardens and ponds. Designed for entertainment, all these murals, furniture models and figurines provided an opportunity to see the life of Ancient Egypt from a fairly close distance in four thousand years.

It turns out that at the dawn of its existence, the Egyptian civilization, like the Mesopotamian, was a land where one invention after another appeared: from a calendar of 365 days, to hieroglyphs and important geometric laws; from the large carrying capacity of papyrus ships to the nіlometer, with the help of which they accurately determined the water level in the river and assumed the expected harvest; from sleds that carried huge stone blocks, to windows and doors (houses in Mesopotamia did not have windows, and instead of a door, the entrance was covered with a piece of cloth). Subsequently, however, various innovations appeared less and less frequently. People lived and worked like their fathers, grandfathers, great-grandfathers, forefathers. For centuries, the usual ways of daily work have hardly changed. For example, "few people changed the polished flint tools to copper and bronze ones. After all, flint was easily located on the high banks of the Nile, and the extraction of raw materials and tools from copper and bronze was more difficult. Only at the end of the Old Kingdom in Egypt did the potter's wheel spread, which had long been It was only after the fall of the Old Kingdom that the Egyptians began to guess that a curved plow enters the ground better than a straight one, and grain grinders are easier to turn while standing than squatting, you just need to adjust the inclined tray, then the flour will definitely zsipatisya into the substituted under However, for centuries, weavers sat bent over and pulled their legs under them, in front of low horizontal looms, and blacksmiths, with might and main, fanned the fire in the forge through a thick pipe, instead of using bellows. in other countries.Thus, in the Egyptian lands, where traditions reigned and all ancient Noe, a lot of extra effort was spent in vain.

Around the middle of the thirteenth century BC e. the decline of the Egyptian state begins, the tendencies of internal decentralization are intensifying. The last pharaoh of the sixth dynasty was killed by conspirators. Instead of him, they put his sister on the throne, who thanked them: she invited them to celebrate the victory at a feast in the underground hall, into which they launched the water of the Nile. All conspirators died. However, conspiracies became a sign of the rule of the next, seventh dynasty, when through constant palace coups, the time of the reign of the pharaohs was measured in days. According to one source, the five pharaohs of this dynasty ruled, according to the total calculation, only 75 days, and according to another source, 70 pharaohs - 70 days. The internal tension in the country also increased. On the one hand, social contradictions are due to the overstrain of monumental construction, on the other hand, the strengthening of the nobility. During 2180-2080. BC e. political chaos reigns in the country and it breaks up into nepіvzalezhnі nomes. This is the first intermediate period, which accounted for the reign of the pharaohs of the seventh - tenth dynasties. During the fragmentation, the economy suffered especially, as the irrigation system was significantly disorganized. Sometimes it even led to hunger. Although the first cases of terror at the state level in history also played their role: for refusing to pay taxes, on the orders of the pharaoh, the recalcitrant "turned off the water" (filled up the channels through which it flowed). It was real terrorism, because it was not the victims themselves that mattered, but those who learned about this way of dealing with resistance and imposing their will on others by intimidation, as the pharaohs did.

Under the Theban rulers Mentuhotepі And the country was reunited. The period of the Middle Kingdom began (2080-1640 BC - the eleventh and twelfth dynasties of the pharaohs). Egyptian society was an interesting combination of freedom and restrictions. Slavery did not become widespread until the beginning of the next period of the New Kingdom, although it was known already in the time of the Ancient. There was no caste system, as was the case from antiquity in Indian civilization. The factor of ethnicity did not matter. If a person had talent, despite her humble origins, she could rise to the highest positions. The most famous example that dates from the New Kingdom is the biblical story of Joseph, who arrived in Egypt as a slave, and became the second person after the pharaoh. However, the vast majority of the common people were serfs who could not leave the land of their own free will. The main creators of material wealth were "hemuu nisut" - royal hemuu, deprived of property rights even for tools and means of labor. The peasants were forced to work on the construction of canals and pyramids, because they used land and water, belonged to the pharaoh with the need to work off. Young men were taken into the army, which served as both a combat and labor force.

However, the ancient Egyptians perceived the system that existed without objection. For them, he embodied justice and order, harmony between the human, natural and divine. If the pharaoh was weak or allowed someone to challenge his unique position, he thus opened the way for chaos. Twice in history a pharaoh has failed to maintain rigid centralization. During these two days, known as the first and second intermediate periods, Egypt was subjected to civil wars and foreign invasions. However, even in the most difficult periods, despotism survived. And each time, a strong pharaoh like Mentuhotep Yi emerged to put down the rebellion, drive out the invaders, and restore order.

However, the Middle Kingdom also ceased to exist in political chaos and dynastic strife. This was taken advantage of by the Hyksos who invaded from Asia. The time of their invasion became the second intermediate period (1640-1570 BC - thirteenth - seventeenth dynasties). In the history of ancient Egypt, this period is depicted as a terrible time. Although the Egyptians presented the Hyksos as a horde of brutal conquerors, they were probably nothing more than nomads who were looking for a better land. their penetration to the Nile Delta little gradual and relatively peaceful. The "invasion" of the aliens turned out to be one of those periods that enriched the history of Egypt, because new ideas and technologies were introduced into life. In particular, the Hyksosi brought with them new methods of producing bronze and casting tools and weapons from it, which soon became standard in Egypt. They thus brought Egypt completely into the culture of the Bronze Age of the Mediterranean world, to that culture in which the production and use of bronze became the basis of society. Bronze tools were made Agriculture more efficient than ever before as they were sharper and more durable than the copper blades they replaced. The Hyksosivske use of bronze weapons and armor and horse-drawn chariots (the Egyptians used carts with donkeys), as well as the bow, which was made from specially processed wood and horn and was much more powerful than an ordinary wooden bow, made a real revolution in military affairs. Yet, despite the fact that the Egyptians learned a lot from the Hyksos, Egyptian culture gradually absorbed the newcomers: the Hyksos began to worship the Egyptian gods and build their state on the model of the Pharaohs.

Politically, Egypt was only in eclipse. The Egyptian sun of power shone again when the kings of the eighteenth dynasty rose to fight the conquerors. it was founded by the ruler of m. Thebes, Ahmose I, who managed to oust the Hyksos from the Nile Delta. The next period in the history of Ancient Egypt began - the New Kingdom (1570-1075 BC - the eighteenth - twentieth dynasty). After Ahmose, I Thutmose I conquered Nubia in the south, and Thutmose III, who was called Alexander the Great of Ancient Egypt (1490-1436 BC), made fifteen great campaigns beyond the old borders of Egypt, conquered Palestine and Syria, continuously fought with the Hurits, who, having migrated to the upper reaches of the Euphrates, created the kingdom of Mittanii there. The above-mentioned warrior pharaohs proclaimed the New Kingdom - the period was characterized by great wealth and conscious imperialism1. For the first time at this stage, widespread slavery became a characteristic feature of Egyptian life. The armies of the pharaohs returned home, bringing with them crowds of slaves, a large number of cattle, huge trophies. Of course, after a devastating invasion of one city, the rulers of others were in a hurry to present valuable gifts in order to avoid destruction. However, the warlike pharaohs took offerings, and the cities were devastated on occasion. Already in his first campaign, Amenhotep II led over 100 thousand prisoners from the states of the Near East, and hung seven of the killed rulers by their feet on the prow of his "falcon ship". Know he hung on the walls of the conquered cities. Slaves usually became the new labor force for imperial building projects as imperialism sought to make itself visible. Warrior kings celebrated their own successes with monuments of such grandiose proportions that can only be compared with the great pyramids. This was supposed to testify to the power of the New Kingdom.

The pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty created the first Egyptian empire, ruled Palestine and Syria through their governors, and incorporated the African region of Nubia. Egyptian beliefs and customs flourished in Nubia, which significantly influenced the then African culture in this and adjacent areas. A special role in this period was played by the first female pharaoh - Hatshepsut. It was also the first great female ruler in human history. A woman in Egypt could not inherit the throne, but power was transferred precisely through the female line: the husband of the pharaoh's daughter became the heir to the throne. Because of that royal son, they tried to marry his own sister. In an attempt not to release power from the family, they did not pay much attention to the unfavorable nature of such a marriage from the point of view of genetics, as a result of which weak descendants were often born. As the daughter of Thutmose I, Hatshepsut married Thutmose P, her father's son by another woman. Weak and weak-willed, he died young, Hatshepsut achieved regency under his son from a harem woman, who later became Thutmose Sh. In 1503 BC. e. she was crowned, as if embodying the will of the god Amon. It was an unprecedented audacity in a social system where men had absolute power. Perhaps, in order to emphasize her right to rule in the role of king, she, like male pharaohs, put on an artificial beard (the Egyptians shaved her chin).

She did not like to fight. During the 21 years of her reign, the borders of Egypt did not expand. But palaces and temples were erected, canals were built, sciences and arts flourished, economic ties through trade with distant lands. If anyone was dissatisfied with the reign of the queen, then these were the military leaders who were left without work. And the young Thutmose showed the makings of a capable commander. The smart ruler realized that any war could undermine her power: the victories would be attributed to her stepson, and the defeat would be blamed on her. However, after her death, the peaceful course was forgotten, just as the name of the female ruler was forgotten. her stepson, Pharaoh Thutmose III, having come to power, made efforts to erase the memory of Hatshepsut.

Of course, the rapid economic development that characterizes the period of the New Kingdom was largely due to the influx of huge quantities of raw materials, livestock, precious metals, all kinds of tribute and labor. At the same time, there was progress associated with the development of production technologies. In particular, during this period, an improved plow, leg bellows in metallurgy, and a vertical loom began to be widely used. And the main producer of material goods, as before, remained the working population of Egypt, burdened various types duties.

Life in ancient Egypt may seem too archaic, shackled by strong traditions. However, he was also familiar with reform attempts. The most famous reforming pharaoh was Amenhotep IV, who took the name Akhenaten (1367-1350 BC) and was more concerned with religion than conquest. The exact nature of his religious beliefs remains debatable. During the life of Akhenaten, his religion was not popular among the population and the traditional priesthood. After her death, she was rejected and cursed. Accordingly, little is known about her. Most historians agree that Akhenaten was a monotheist, namely, he believed that the sun god Aten, whom he worshiped and wanted everyone else to worship, was everyone's favorite god. And the pharaoh considered all the other Egyptian gods and goddesses to be false and did not respect their worship. Consequently, his concepts and actions were in direct opposition to traditional Egyptian beliefs. The Egyptians have long revered a large number - more than two hundred - gods, the main of which was considered Amon-Ra. From the beginning, Amun and Ra were two different sun gods, but the Egyptians combined them and worshiped Amun-Ra as the king of the gods. In addition to him, they worshiped other gods, such as Osiris, his wife Isis and son Horus. The Egyptian religion left space for many gods and accepted new ones with ease.

Motives of the traditional priesthood were added to these religious feelings of the people. The priests, outraged by the monotheism of the pharaoh, were more worried about their own well-being, associated with one or another deity from the numerous pantheon. Thus, based on their own considerations, the priesthood, which should support the pharaoh, defied him. This resistance, in turn, provoked in Akhenaten a reaction of intolerance and persecution: he vengefully tried to eradicate the old gods and their rituals. After all, in his opinion, there was one god of the solar disk - Aton - understandable and visible. The very fact that a new deity was visible to the eye meant that there would be a fundamental change in people's ideas about gods. After all, God did not hide from people, people felt his closeness. Unlike the other secret gods, which no one saw, everyone could touch his beam. And the world should be ruled by two kings: the Sun-Aton and his son Akhenaten - "Pleasant to Aten".

The break with the past, which took place around 1362 BC. e., the pharaoh-reformer noted the construction of a new capital of the state - the city of Ehetaton, which means "Horizon of the Aten" (modern El-Amarna). There a huge temple was erected to Aten, where the corresponding honors were ruled. The cult of the new god focused on truth, as Akhenaten himself defined it, and the pursuit of the natural. Pharaoh demanded that naturalness be manifested in everything, in particular in art. Unlike the painting and art of earlier times, which combined the real and the abstract, the art of this period became thoroughly realistic. The sculptors reproduced the exact likeness of the pharaoh, despite his ugly features and shapeless body. Artists painted him in intimate family scenes, playing with his little daughter or nibbling on a meat patty. Akhenaten was portrayed as a mortal, not as a respected pharaoh of Egypt.

His monotheism was imposed from above and did not find a response among the people. The main reason for the failure of the reforming pharaoh was that his god had no connection with the past of the Egyptians, who trusted the old gods and felt comfortable praying to them. Ordinary Egyptians were no doubt thrilled and puzzled when their family gods were outlawed, as they were considered the heavenly powers that made Egypt powerful and unique. Fanaticism and persecution accompanied the new monotheism, completely rejecting the tradition of tolerant polytheism or the worship of multiple gods. This was a profound shock to Egypt.

Another shock, and for subsequent eras, was the beauty of Akhenaten's wife - Nifertiti, in translation - "The beautiful one has come." She became the first known beauty in the history of mankind. Many centuries later, people of other countries and times call their beauties by this name. Everyone knows her sculptural portrait, which can be trusted, since, as already noted, realism was cultivated. However, it is half present in the bust, as it is turned in profile. This is due to the fact that the second half of the face was left unfinished - not inlaid eyes, because it was believed that a completed portrait could "take away part of the soul." The queen's eyes are lined with dark paint. Of course, this gives her charm, but the Egyptians cared not only about beauty. The custom to circle the edge of the eye with powder from crushed malachite or other mixtures was intended to protect against frequent ophthalmic diseases (constant hurricanes, bad water, etc.). The power of action was attributed not to copper oxide, contained in malachite and had healing properties, but to the miraculous power of the stone. The Egyptians endowed precious stones with supernatural properties, they constantly wore various amulets as amulets to protect against evil forces.

During her lifetime, Nifertiti supported her husband in his struggle against the old religion. However, after his death, her name, just like the name Akhenaten, was outlawed. The chroniclers crossed out this time from the history of the country, and the priests destroyed their names everywhere, which was a sophisticated revenge: without this, the restless soul must wander forever in the darkness of the other world. The city of the Solar Horizon, its inhabitants left instantly, even leaving all things, as if they were fleeing. Only 12 years stood Akhetaten - a city that should become a city of the Sun, arts, love and joy. It was the first capital in history built on a completely empty site. It was also the first attempt in history to realize the dream of a utopia. However, history has not taught people to understand the illusory nature of such hopes. Like the fact that in the struggle of ideas political power not always effective. Although, in the end, behind the struggle of ideas there is always a struggle for power. It is likely that Akhenaten did not so much bother with the introduction of a new faith, as he tried to limit the excessive power of the priesthood, which harmed his own power.

After the death of Akhenaten, Smenkhkare ruled for a short time - the husband of his eldest daughter, and the next in 1333 BC. e. the throne was taken by 9-year-old Tutankhaton, the son of a heretic king and his blood sister, married at the age of 12 to another daughter of Akhenaten, Ankhesenamun. That is, the "golden pharaoh" was a child of incest and, as is often the case in such cases, suffers from several diseases. Among them - necrosis of the bones of the foot, develops in infancy. The priests took advantage of the infancy and weakness of the pharaoh to put an end to religious innovation. The name was changed to Tutankhamun, the capital was again transferred to Thebes. It was previously believed that Tutankhamun died before he was 20 years old. However, a long-term study of his mummy ended with the publication in February 2010 of the results, which showed that he died at the age of 45-50 years. Previously, it was believed that he was poisoned or killed by a blow to the head. But DNA studies have proven that he died from a severe complication of malaria. His importance as a ruler was small. And even under such conditions, the wealth and luxury that were discovered in 1922 by English archaeologists, when they entered his burial chamber, which turned out to be not robbed in the Valley of the Kings, is amazing. Perhaps it was thanks to those treasures (over 5 thousand precious things, many of which were made of pure gold, in particular his funeral mask), that the name of Tutankhamun became the most famous among all the rulers of antiquity.

Soon after the death of Tutankhamen in Egypt, a new dynasty, the 19th dynasty, came to power, put forward famous conquering kings, the first place among which was taken by Ramses II. He conquered the Hittites and ruled for 67 years - from 1279 to 1212 BC. e. His military victories were accompanied by grandiose construction, which was facilitated by the influx of wealth from the conquered lands. They built a majestic complex, which included both the palace and the mortuary temple. The most famous among the cyclopean structures of those times - the temple carved into the rock of Abu Simbel, halls, columns, statues, including four 20-meter statues of Ramses II on the facade - hang from a huge rock mass. This temple was the last flash of Egyptian monumental genius.

After Ramses II and during subsequent dynasties, a period of heavy long wars began. In general, the peaceful situation in Egypt came to an end in the XI century. BC e., that is, at the end of the New Kingdom. This was due to the invasion of the "peoples of the sea", which put an end to the big days of Egyptian power. One scribe left a terrifying portrait of then-Egypt, dumbfounded and decapitated: “Egyptian land was abandoned, each person was his own zakov. For many years there was no leader who could speak for others. country. Anyone - big or small - could kill a neighbor. In grief and emptiness, people gathered in gangs to rob each other. They treated gods no better than people. And they stopped paying taxes on the temple." The disasters that threw the Egyptians into the hands of foreign conquerors made it impossible to continue to believe that the pharaoh was the god of the whole world. No longer capable of dreaming of foreign campaigns, Egypt suffered from its own insecurity. The Egyptians suffered a 400-year period of political fragmentation, which weakened them in the face of external conquerors. On the eve of the arrival of the "peoples of the sea" in the Middle East, numerous small kingdoms arose, and each fiercely defended its independence. For them, Egypt became only a memory. Foreign kings often met Egyptian officials with suspicion and even contempt, although in the days of Egyptian greatness they would never have dared to treat representatives of a great power so dismissively.

Destroyed from the inside and powerless from the outside, Egypt fell victim to the invasion of African neighbors. Libyans from North Africa penetrated to the Nile Delta, where they established independent dynasties. From 950 to 730 BC e. northern Egypt was ruled by the Libyan pharaohs. The Libyans built cities, and for the first time an active urban life arose here. Although the arrival of the Libyans changed the face of the delta, the newcomers sincerely admired the Egyptian culture, willingly borrowed the Egyptian culture and way of life.

At the same time, in southern Egypt, the decline of the pharaohs opened the way for the energetic Africans of Nubia, who extended their influence north through the Nile Valley. Nubian influence in those days, although powerful, was not destructive. From the imperial times of the eighteenth dynasty of the Egyptian pharaohs, the Nubians adopted many features of Egyptian culture. Now the Nubian kings and aristocrats accepted it as a whole. The very idea of ​​destroying the heritage of the pharaohs would seem to them senseless and barbaric. Thus, the Nubians and Libyans repeated a well-known phenomenon: new peoples conquered the old centers of political and military power, but nevertheless assimilated into the old culture.

The reunification of Egypt came late and unexpectedly. While Egypt was distracted by external raids and was disorganized, an independent African state of Kush with its capital in the city of Nepata grew up on the territory of modern Sudan. The locals also honored the Egyptian gods and used the Egyptian writing system. In the 8th century BC e. their king Yankhi walked through the entire Nile valley from Nepati in the south to the delta in the north. A reunited Egypt experienced a short period of peace during which the Egyptians continued to assimilate their conquerors. In the kingdom of Kush, Egyptian methods of management, economic accounting, crafts, arts, and methods of economic activity became common. However, the reunification of the territories did not result in a new Egyptian empire. In the centuries between the fall of the New Kingdom and the restoration of Egypt, a number of small but vibrant kingdoms took root and established themselves in the Ancient Near East. In the 7th century BC e. Egypt again became a strong kingdom, but not a powerful empire. In 525 BC. e. in the battle of Pelusius, the Persian army of King Cambyses inflicted a crushing defeat on the Egyptians, after which Cambyses was proclaimed king of Egypt - this was the seventeenth dynasty. Several times the country managed to achieve independence from the Persian masters, until it was conquered by Alexander the Great in 332 BC. e. In his face, the Egyptians saw a liberator from the oppression of the Persians. The era of Hellenism began, and the time of the pharaohs was exhausted, although the last - thirty-first dynasty was founded by the Diadochus - the commander-successor of Alexander the Great Ptolemy Lag. The last ruler of this dynasty was the famous Cleopatra. Under her rule, the state was conquered by Rome and turned into a Roman province.

The ancient Egyptians considered their civilization created by the gods. The existence of the state was not thought without Maat. This is an abstract moral concept that Egyptologists explain as "the right order of things", Maat exists if everything is in the order established by the gods. This is something like the original and cosmic harmonizing force that arranges everything that exists in the right proportions. History shows that all ancient societies valued order and harmony - most of them had an autocratic system of government that highly valued discipline - but the concept of Maat shows a new way to influence morality. When a society is able to give a name to the abstract idea of ​​right order without attaching it to God, then in such a society there is a sophisticated way of thinking. The idea of ​​the correct order of the world certainly helped to maintain the unity of Egyptian society.

However, the civilization of Ancient Egypt eventually fell and went into oblivion. However, Egypt's legacy among its neighbors remained vibrant and rich. This is largely due to the long-standing invention and subsequent spread of hieroglyphic writing. Records were made on papyrus - the prototype of paper, made from vegetable raw materials (unused papyrus was found in the tomb of a nobleman of the I dynasty, dated to the 4th and 3rd millennium BC, that is, the Egyptians invented it at the dawn of their history). Many papyri have been preserved in their original form, the texts of others have come down to our time in later copies. Egyptian hieroglyphs were able to decipher in 1822 the outstanding French historian F. Champollion. He arrived in the country in the convoy of Napoleon Bonaparte and found the Rosetta Stone, on which Egyptian records were duplicated in Greek. Subsequently, the scientist became the founder of Egyptology - a science that returns to the residents their forgotten history. The most ancient chronicle in the world, which covers more than five centuries, has also been preserved. However, no broad historical generalizations were made, and changes in the life of the state were explained by the will of the gods and the moral qualities of people. Although all types of mental activity in one way or another depended on religion, it was the priests who were engaged in the accumulation and systematization of information. They are well aware of the truth, which is currently formulated as follows: "He who has information, he has power." They really had power not only over ordinary people, but also over the pharaohs, skillfully using their knowledge for this. Often the priests did not shy away from fraud, performing "miracles" with the help of knowledge of physics, chemistry, mechanics, etc. People were shown strange things that should confirm their mediation in communicating with the gods, who somehow "expressed their will." For example, on the wall of the temple, suddenly, against the background of first red, then green, after the spells of the priests, the shadow of the god Osiris appeared. How could people know that the priests had treated the wall in advance with nitrate salts and sulfuric antimony, which, under the influence of a special compound, began to glow? And only the unprocessed part, which behind the contours exactly coincided with the contour of the image of the god, remained dark. Seeing the shadow of an unmerciful god who could turn crops into ashes, people were ready to give half of the harvest to the granary of the priestly temple, and also to bring another tribute to the temple several times every day. In the end, the priests themselves suffered from their greed. In 2010, scientists from the UK, having examined 22 mummies of the priests of Ancient Egypt, found that 16 of them had atherosclerosis, which led to death. Cardiovascular diseases, from which the clergy most often died, were caused by the abuse of large amounts of fat and alcohol. As temple inscriptions testify, large quantities of fried meat and poultry, fatty sweets, as well as wine and beer were sacrificed to the gods three times a day. Salt was used as a preservative. At the end of the ceremony, the priests divided what they brought among themselves and ate, unaware of the harmfulness of this way of eating. Among other social strata of the population, these diseases almost did not occur, since they ate in a different way.

However, the priests accumulated and processed enormous amounts of information. Subsequently, other nations borrowed a lot from the accumulated Egyptians in such areas as mathematics, astronomy and medicine. The principle of dividing the day into 24 hours, which has become the property of mankind, also comes from the ancient Egyptian civilization. In addition, we, without thinking about the origin of this or that thing, continue to use what first appeared in the ancient Egyptian civilization, for example, doors, windows, tables, chairs with backs, plates, glass, paper and much more. Even the most common plot in modern theater and cinema about Cinderella, who was found by her shoe, has its origin in Ancient Egypt.

The last hieroglyphic inscription dates back to 394, in 535 the temple of Isis on the island of Philae ceased to exist - the last pillar of Egyptian paganism. Ancient Egypt has become a myth. In our time, this country is included in the sphere of the Arab-Muslim civilization.

Over a long period in their development, people have made great strides forward: from primitive hunters to builders of civilizations. Major rivers created the necessary conditions for the emergence of settled life. Since the rivers posed different problems for different nations, then the development on the globe took place unequally. Having subjugated the flora and fauna, people have achieved impressive prosperity. Having satisfied their basic physical needs, they achieved much more in such areas as social associations, metallurgy, remote trade. The intellectual achievements of those centuries were impressive: advanced mathematics, monumental architecture, fascinating literature.

Although the early civilizations of the Ancient Near East suffered devastating blows, a great many of their achievements still survive. The great achievements of Mesopotamia and Egypt were improved by those who came after them.

Rich and beautiful ancient history. Egypt, Babylon, Jerusalem - these names are close and understandable to every person who is even remotely familiar with the chronology of human development. Consider in this article the culture of ancient Egypt.

How did the Egyptian state come about?

According to historians, public education, called Egypt, was created in North Africa, in the valley of a huge river called the Nile. This civilization belongs, along with Indian and Chinese, to archaic agrarian cultures. The origin of the Egyptian statehood is attributed to approximately 4-5 millennium BC.

Today there is a whole science - Egyptology, which studies the Egyptian culture as a single and diverse entity.

Historians identify the following stages in the development of this state:

1. Predynastic Egypt.
2. Former kingdom.
3. Ancient kingdom.
4. New kingdom.
5. Later kingdom.
6. The reign of Ptolemy.

The most ancient history: Egypt at the beginning of its historical path

State formation on this earth begins with the formation of two poles, Upper and Lower Egypt. The capital of the new state becomes the city of Menfis. The unification processes of the two parts of Egypt are carried out by the ruler Menes. At the same time, the necessary institutions of statehood arise: hieroglyphic writing, the army, religious cults and their own ideology.

The heyday of the state

Egypt reached its greatest prosperity in the middle of its history. This time is usually called the dynastic period, when the dynasties of the pharaohs succeeded each other on the throne.

The fact is that in Egypt a special religious cult was created, which, in addition to the deification of the forces of nature, included the deification of the personality of the king. The power of the pharaohs was enormous, because he was the personification of all his people on earth. Accordingly, if the pharaoh led a righteous life and was pleasing to the gods, then he and his people received salvation in the afterlife.

Hence the special attention to the preservation of the bodies of the dead, because religious beliefs assumed the resurrection of bodies. The first Egyptian pyramids began to be built precisely as huge and majestic tombs of the dead pharaohs.

Which tombs are the most majestic?

Egyptian culture: own texts

Modern Egyptology has advanced very far since the century before last. To date, there are a fairly large number of sources through which you can learn a lot about the ancient culture. Let's consider them in more detail.

The first and main source of knowledge are Egyptian texts written in hieroglyphs. For a long time this ancient civilization was a mystery, because the hieroglyphic writing was completely incomprehensible to Europeans. A real breakthrough in Egyptology was made by the French scientist Jean-Francois Champollion, who was able to decipher the language ancient people. By the way, British scientists also struggled with this, but it was Champollion who came up with the idea to turn to the language of the Copts, the ancient descendant of the Egyptians, who in the 1st century AD adopted Christianity and completely abandoned their pagan heritage.

Egyptian culture: texts near living peoples

The second source of knowledge about Egyptian culture is the texts of Greek authors, as well as the writings of historians of the ancient era. However, relations between Egypt and other states were complex, so some of the information presented in these materials is somewhat unreliable.

And finally, the texts of the Bible became the last source of information about Egyptian culture. The very name of the state is often found in the Holy Scriptures and other religious texts of the Jews. In particular, the mass exodus of the Jewish people from Egypt is described in detail (which is confirmed by the studies of modern scientists). It is in the Bible that it is said that the ancient civilization will lose its power in the future and become an ordinary state.

Egyptian art

Decline of Egyptian culture

During the late kingdom, the state fell into decline, so it was conquered by the Roman Empire. It happened in this way: many pharaohs were replaced on the throne. Some of them were great statesmen (such as Amenhotep III). These kings significantly expanded the boundaries of their possessions, bringing them to the territory of Syria.

Other pharaohs either did little public affairs or proposed radical reforms at all. Such a reformer was the father of Tutankhamun Akhenaten, who dreamed of creating a new religious cult of the sun god (Ra). However, his reforms completely failed, and the state fell into decay.

Causes and consequences of the decline of Egypt

Historians attribute the gradual decline of Egyptian power to two circumstances: the decline of the former religious system based on the deification of the pharaoh, as well as the clan struggle of the Egyptian elite.

The first circumstance was very serious for the state, which rested on the belief that the pharaoh, as the father of the people, could lead all his subjects to immortality and God. Tsars often behaved unworthily, and this was noticeable even to ordinary people. In addition, slander, intrigue and murder reigned in the palaces (by the way, many Egyptologists suggest that most of the reigning pharaohs did not die a natural death).

The clan struggle within the Egyptian elite intensified and led to the fact that the military leaders declared themselves pharaohs and sought to rule certain part Egypt. This made the state weak and fragmented, and therefore vulnerable to the armies of other states.

All this led to the fact that Egypt fell under the onslaught of the troops of the young and proud commander Alexander, nicknamed the Macedonian. And after the early and sudden death of this great conqueror, the Egyptian state passed to one of his associates - Ptolemy.

Thus began the reign of the alien state. The Egyptian capital was then transferred to the city of Alexandria, which became famous for centuries for its amazing library. Egypt itself from a once powerful state turned into an agricultural country, which was a supplier of food for the ancient world.

The ancient kingdom lost its independence forever. The last queen of the Ptolemaic family was the famous beauty Cleopatra. She committed suicide, realizing that the Roman troops were ready to take away her throne from her. So Egypt turned into one of the provinces of the formidable Roman Empire.

Significance of Ancient Egyptian Civilization

Many of our contemporaries are familiar with ancient history. Egypt occupies the first and honorable place among other states. Many tourists today come to this country not so much because of its warm climate, but for the sake of wonderful excursions to ancient places.

Egyptian civilization means a lot for the development of mankind. She showed an example of a state structure. A strong and cohesive education, which has such social institutions as a combat-ready army, the development of an ideological system, an education and upbringing system, generally gives very positive results. The state becomes a leader among its neighbors, so it can claim a high position and gives its members a sense of relative security and confidence.

Diverse ancient history, Egypt and its civilization - a wonderful example of a state system.

By the way, the biblical prophecy came true: with the advent of a new era, it lost the status of a great power forever.

Later, this state was subjected to Arab conquest, so today Egypt is one of the Arab countries. The indigenous people, called Copts, experience some discrimination due to the fact that these people are Christians living in a Muslim country.