All about Nicholas. Biography of Emperor Nicholas II Alexandrovich. Philatelic collection of Nicholas II

Appointment of an heir
Ascension to the throne
The theory of official nationality
Third branch
Censorship and new school regulations
Laws, finance, industry and transport
The peasant question and the position of the nobility
Bureaucracy
Foreign policy until the early 1850s
Crimean War and the death of the emperor

1. Appointment of an heir

Aloysius Rockstuhl. Portrait of Grand Duke Nikolai Pavlovich. Miniature from the original 1806. 1869 Wikimedia Commons

In a nutshell: Nicholas was the third son of Paul I and was not supposed to inherit the throne. But of all the sons of Paul, only he had a son, and during the reign of Alexander I, the family decided that Nicholas should be the heir.

Nikolai Pavlovich was the third son of Emperor Paul I, and, generally speaking, he should not have reigned.

He was never prepared for this. Like most Grand Dukes, Nicholas received first military education. In addition, he was fond of the natural sciences and engineering, he drew very well, but he was not interested in the humanities. Philosophy and political economy generally passed him by, and from history he knew only the biographies of great rulers and generals, but had no idea about cause-and-effect relationships or historical processes. Therefore, from the point of view of education, he was poorly prepared for state activity.

In the family, from childhood, they did not take him too seriously: there was a huge difference in age between Nikolai and his older brothers (he was 19 years older than him, Konstantin - 17), and he was not attracted to state affairs.

In the country, almost only the guards knew Nikolai (since in 1817 he became the chief inspector of the Corps of Engineers and the chief of the Life Guards of the Sapper Battalion, and in 1818 - the commander of the 2nd brigade of the 1st infantry division, which included several guards units ), and knew from a bad side. The fact is that the guard returned from the foreign campaigns of the Russian army, according to Nikolai himself, loose-mouthed, unaccustomed to drill training and having heard enough freedom-loving conversations, and he began to discipline her. Since he was a stern and very quick-tempered man, this resulted in two big scandals: first, before the formation, Nikolai insulted one of the guards captains, and then the general, the favorite of the guards, Karl Bistrom, before whom he eventually had to publicly apologize.

But none of the sons of Paul, except Nicholas, had sons. Alexander and Mikhail (the youngest of the brothers) had only girls, and even they died early, and Konstantin had no children at all - and even if they had, they could not inherit the throne, since in 1820 Konstantin entered into morganatic marriage Morganatic marriage- an unequal marriage, the children from which did not receive the right to inherit. with the Polish Countess Grudzinskaya. And in 1818, Nikolai had a son, Alexander, and this largely predetermined the further course of events.

Portrait of Grand Duchess Alexandra Feodorovna with children - Grand Duke Alexander Nikolaevich and Grand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna. Painting by George Doe. 1826 State Hermitage / Wikimedia Commons

In 1819, Alexander I, in a conversation with Nicholas and his wife Alexandra Fedorov, said that not Constantine, but Nicholas would be his successor. But in a way, Alexander himself still hoped that he would have a son, there was no special decree on this matter, and the change of heir to the throne remained a family secret.

Even after this conversation, nothing changed in Nikolai's life: he remained the same as he was a brigadier general and chief engineer of the Russian army; Alexander did not allow him to any state affairs.

2. Accession to the throne

In a nutshell: In 1825, after the unexpected death of Alexander I, an interregnum began in the country. Almost no one knew that Alexander called the heir to Nikolai Pavlovich, and immediately after the death of Alexander, many, including Nikolai himself, took the oath to Konstantin. Meanwhile, Constantine was not going to rule; Nicholas did not want to see the guards on the throne. As a result, the reign of Nicholas began on December 14 with a rebellion and the shedding of blood of subjects.

In 1825, Alexander I suddenly died in Taganrog. In St. Petersburg, only members of the imperial family knew that the throne would be inherited not by Constantine, but by Nicholas. Both the leadership of the guard and the governor-general of St. Petersburg, Mikhail Milo-radovich, did not like Nicholas and wanted to see Constantine on the throne: he was their comrade-in-arms, with whom they went through the Napoleonic wars and foreign campaigns, and they considered him more inclined to reforms (this did not correspond to reality: Constantine both externally and internally looked like his father Paul, and therefore it was not worth expecting changes from him).

As a result, Nicholas swore allegiance to Constantine. The family did not understand this at all. Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna reproached her son: “What did you do, Nikolai? Don't you know that there is an act that declares you heir?" Such an act actually existed. August 16, 1823 Alexander I, which said that, since the emperor does not have a direct male heir, and Konstantin Pavlovich expressed a desire to renounce his rights to the throne (Constantine wrote about this to Alexander I in a letter back in early 1822), the successor - No one announces Grand Duke Nikolai Pavlovich. This manifesto was not made public: it existed in four copies, which were stored in sealed envelopes in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin, the Holy Synod, the State Council and the Senate. On the envelope from the Assumption Cathedral, Alexander wrote that the envelope should be opened immediately after his death., but was kept secret, and Nikolai did not know its exact content, since no one had familiarized him with it in advance. In addition, this act did not have legal force, because, according to the current Pavlovian law on succession to the throne, power could only be transferred from father to son or from brother to brother next in seniority. In order to make Nicholas heir, Alexander had to return the law on succession to the throne adopted by Peter I (according to which the reigning monarch had the right to appoint any successor to himself), but he did not.

Constantine himself was at that time in Warsaw (he was the commander-in-chief of the Polish armies and the de facto viceroy of the emperor in the kingdom of Poland) and flatly refused both to take the throne (he was afraid that in this case he would be killed like his father), and officially , according to the existing form, renounce him.

Silver ruble with the image of Constantine I. 1825 State Hermitage

Negotiations between St. Petersburg and Warsaw lasted about two weeks, during which there were two emperors in Russia - and at the same time not a single one. Busts of Konstantin have already begun to appear in institutions, and several copies of the ruble with his image have been printed.

Nicholas found himself in a very difficult situation, given how he was treated in the guard, but in the end he decided to declare himself heir to the throne. But since they had already sworn allegiance to Konstantin, now a re-swearing was to take place, and this has never happened in the history of Russia. From the point of view of even not so much the nobles as the guards soldiers, this was completely incomprehensible: one soldier said that gentlemen officers can re-swear if they have two honors, but I, he said, have one honor, and, having sworn in once, I'm not going to swear a second time. In addition, two weeks of interregnum gave the opportunity to gather their forces.

Upon learning of the impending rebellion, Nicholas decided to declare himself emperor and take the oath on December 14. On the same day, the Decembrists withdrew the Guards units from the barracks to the Senate Square - in order to allegedly protect the rights of Konstantin, from whom Nicholas takes the throne.

Through parliamentarians, Nikolai tried to persuade the rebels to disperse to the barracks, promising to pretend that nothing had happened, but they did not disperse. It was towards evening, in the dark the situation could develop unpredictably, and the performance had to be stopped. This decision was very difficult for Nikolai: firstly, when giving the order to open fire, he did not know whether his artillery soldiers would obey and how other regiments would react to it; secondly, in this way he ascended the throne, having shed the blood of his subjects - among other things, it was completely incomprehensible how they would look at this in Europe. Nevertheless, in the end, he gave the order to shoot the rebels with cannons. The square was swept away by several volleys. Nikolai himself did not look at this - he galloped off to the Winter Palace, to his family.

Nicholas I in front of the formation of the Life Guards of the Sapper Battalion in the courtyard of the Winter Palace on December 14, 1825. Painting by Vasily Maksutov. 1861 State Hermitage Museum

For Nicholas, this was a difficult test, which left a very strong imprint on his entire reign. He considered the incident to be God's providence - and decided that he was called by the Lord to fight the revolutionary infection not only in his own country, but in Europe in general: he considered the Decembrist conspiracy to be part of a pan-European one.

3. The theory of official nationality

In a nutshell: The basis of the Russian state ideology under Nicholas I was the theory of official nationality, formulated by the Minister of National Education Uvarov. Uvarov believed that Russia, having joined the family of European peoples only in the 18th century, was too young a country to cope with the problems and diseases that struck other European states in the 19th century. ve-ke, so now it was necessary to delay her development for a while until she matured. To educate society, he formulated a triad, which, in his opinion, described the most important elements of the "folk spirit" - "Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality." Nicholas I perceived this triad as universal, not temporary.

If in the second half of the 18th century many European monarchs, including Catherine II, were guided by the ideas of the Enlightenment (and the enlightened absolutism that grew on its basis), then by the 1820s, both in Europe and in Russia, the philosophy of the Enlightenment disappointed many. Ideas formulated by Immanuel Kant, Friedrich Schelling, Georg Hegel and other authors began to come to the fore, later called German classical philosophy. The French Enlightenment said that there is one road to progress, laid out by laws, human reason and enlightenment, and all the peoples who follow it will eventually come to prosperity. The German classics came to the conclusion that there is no single road: each country has its own road, which is led by a higher spirit, or higher mind. Knowledge about what kind of road this is (that is, what is the “spirit of the people”, its “historical beginnings”), is revealed not to an individual people, but to a family of peoples connected by a single root. Since all European peoples come from the same root of Greco-Roman antiquity, these truths are revealed to them; these are "historical peoples".

By the beginning of the reign of Nicholas, Russia found itself in a rather difficult situation. On the one hand, the ideas of the Enlightenment, on the basis of which government policy and reform projects had previously been built, led to the failed reforms of Alexander I and the Decembrist uprising. On the other hand, within the framework of German classical philosophy, Russia turned out to be a “non-historical people”, since it did not have any Greco-Roman roots - which meant that, despite its thousand-year history, it all the same, destined to live on the side of the historical road.

Russian public figures managed to propose a solution, including the Minister of Public Education Sergei Uvarov, who, being a man of Alexander's time and a Westerner, shared the main provisions of German classical philosophy. He believed that until the 18th century, Russia was indeed a non-historical country, but, starting with Peter I, it joins the European family of peoples and thereby enters the general historical road. Thus, Russia turned out to be a “young” country, which by leaps and bounds is catching up with the European states that have gone ahead.

Portrait of Count Sergei Uvarov. Painting by Wilhelm August Golicke. 1833 State Historical Museum / Wikimedia Commons

In the early 1830s, looking at the next Belgian revolution Belgian revolution(1830) - an uprising of the southern (mainly Catholic) provinces of the Kingdom of the Netherlands against the dominant northern (Protestant), which led to the emergence of the Belgian kingdom. And, Uvarov decided that if Russia follows the European path, then it will inevitably have to face European problems. And since she is not yet ready to overcome them in her youth, now it is necessary to make sure that Russia does not step onto this disastrous path until it is able to resist the disease. Therefore, Uvarov considered the first task of the Ministry of Education to be “freezing Russia”: that is, not to completely stop its development, but to delay it for a while, until the Russians learned some guidelines that would allow them to avoid “bloody anxieties” in the future.

To this end, in 1832-1834, Uvarov formulated the so-called theory of official nationality. The theory was based on the triad “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality” (a paraphrase of the military slogan “For Faith, Tsar and Fatherland” that took shape at the beginning of the 19th century), that is, three concepts in which, as he believed, lies the basis of the “folk spirit ".

According to Uvarov, the diseases of Western society arose from the fact that European Christianity split into Catholicism and Protestantism: there is too much rational, individualistic, divisive people in Protestantism, and Catholicism, being too doctrinaire, cannot resist revolutionary ideas. The only tradition that has managed to remain faithful to true Christianity and ensure the unity of the people is Russian Orthodoxy.

It is clear that autocracy is the only form of government that can slowly and carefully manage the development of Russia, keeping it from fatal mistakes, especially since the Russian people have in any case not known any other form of government except monarchy. Therefore, autocracy is at the center of the formula: on the one hand, it is supported by the authority of the Orthodox Church, and, on the other hand, by the traditions of the people.

But what is nationality, Uvarov deliberately did not explain. He himself believed that if this concept was left ambiguous, a variety of social forces could unite on its basis - the authorities and the enlightened elite would be able to find the best solution to modern problems in folk traditions. It is interesting that if for Uvarov the concept of “nationality” in no way meant the participation of the people in the very administration of the state, then the Slavophiles, who generally accepted the formula he proposed, placed the accents differently: emphasizing the word "narodnost", they began to say that if Orthodoxy and autocracy do not meet the people's aspirations, then they must change. Therefore, it was the Slavophils, and not the Westerners, who very soon became the main enemies for the Winter Palace: the Westerners fought on another field - no one understood them anyway. The same forces that accepted the "theory of official nationality", but undertook to interpret it differently, were perceived as much more dangerous..

But if Uvarov himself considered this triad temporary, then Nicholas I perceived it as universal, since it was capacious, understandable and fully consistent with his ideas about how the empire that fell into his hands should develop.

4. Third branch

In a nutshell: The main instrument with which Nicholas I had to control everything that happened in different strata of society was the Third Branch of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery.

So, Nicholas I was on the throne, being absolutely convinced that autocracy is the only form of government that can lead Russia to development and avoid shocks. The last years of his elder brother's reign seemed to him too flabby and unintelligible; the administration of the state, from his point of view, was loose, and therefore he first of all had to take all matters into his own hands.

To do this, the emperor needed a tool that would allow him to know exactly how the country lives and control everything that happens in it. Such an instrument, a kind of eyes and hands of the monarch, was His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery - and first of all its Third Department, which was headed by the cavalry general, a participant in the war of 1812, Alexander Benckendorff.

Portrait of Alexander Benckendorff. Painting by George Doe. 1822 State Hermitage

Initially, only 16 people worked in the Third Department, and by the end of the reign of Nicholas, their number did not increase much. This small number of people did many things. They controlled the work of state institutions, places of exile and imprisonment; conducted cases related to official and the most dangerous criminal offenses (which included forgery of state documents and counterfeiting); were engaged in charity work (mainly among the families of killed or maimed officers); observed the moods in all strata of society; they censored literature and journalism and followed everyone who could be suspected of unreliability, including Old Believers and foreigners. To do this, the Third Division was given a corps of gendarmes, who prepared reports (and very truthful) to the emperor about the mood of minds in different classes and about the state of affairs in the provinces. The third branch was also a kind of secret police, whose main task was to combat "subversive activities" (which was understood quite broadly). We do not know the exact number of secret agents, since their lists never existed, but the fear that existed in society that the Third Division sees, hears and knows everything, suggests that there were quite a lot of them.

5. Censorship and new school regulations

In a nutshell: In order to educate subjects of trustworthiness and loyalty to the throne, Nicholas I significantly increased censorship, made it difficult for children from unprivileged classes to enter universities and severely limited university freedoms.

Another important activity of Nicholas was the education of subjects of loyalty and loyalty to the throne.

For this, the emperor immediately took it. In 1826, a new censorship charter was adopted, which is called "cast iron": it contained 230 prohibitory articles, and it turned out to be very difficult to follow it, because it was not clear what, in principle, could now be written about. Therefore, two years later, a new censorship statute was adopted - this time quite liberal, but it soon began to acquire explanations and additions, and as a result, from a very decent one, it turned into a document that once again forbade too many things for journalists and writers.

If initially censorship was under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Public Education and the Supreme Censorship Committee added by Nicholas (which included the ministers of public education, internal and foreign affairs), then over time, all ministries, the Holy Synod, the Free Economic Society received censorship rights , as well as the Second and Third offices of the Chancellery. Each author had to take into account all the comments that the censors from all these organizations wished to make. The third branch, in addition to other things, began to censor all the plays intended for staging on the stage: a special one had been known since the 18th century.

School teacher. Painting by Andrey Popov. 1854 State Tretyakov Gallery

In order to educate a new generation of Russians in the late 1820s and early 1830s, the statutes of the lower and secondary schools were adopted. The system created under Alexander I was preserved: one-class parish and three-class district schools continued to exist, in which children of unprivileged classes could study, as well as gymnasiums that prepared students for admission to universities. But if earlier it was possible to enter the gymnasium from the district school, now the connection between them was broken and it was forbidden to accept serf children in the gymnasium. Thus, education became even more class-based: admission to universities was difficult for non-noble children, and in principle closed for serfs. The children of the nobility were ordered to study in Russia until the age of eighteen - otherwise they were forbidden to enter the civil service.

Later, Nicholas also took up the universities: their autonomy was limited and much stricter procedures were introduced; the number of students who could study at one time at each university was limited to three hundred. True, several branch institutes were opened at the same time (Technological, Mining, Agricultural, Forestry and Technological School in Moscow), where graduates of district schools could enter. At that time, this was quite a lot, and yet by the end of the reign of Nicholas I, 2,900 students studied in all Russian universities - about the same number at that time were in Leipzig University alone.

6. Laws, finance, industry and transport

In a nutshell: Under Ni-ko-lai I, the government did a lot of useful things: the legislation was systematized, the financial system was reformed, and the transport revolution was carried out. In addition, industry was developing in Russia with the support of the government.

Since, until 1825, Nikolai Pavlovich was not allowed to govern the state, he ascended the throne without his own political team and without sufficient preparation to develop his own program of action. Paradoxical as it may seem, he borrowed a lot - at least at first - from the Decembrists. The fact is that during the investigation they talked a lot and frankly about Russian troubles and offered their own solutions to pressing problems. By order of Nikolai, Alexander Borovkov, secretary of the investigative commission, compiled a set of recommendations from their testimony. It was a most interesting document, in which all the problems of the state were sorted out by points: “Laws”, “Trade”, “Administration system” and so on. Until 1830-1831, both Nicholas I himself and the chairman of the State Council, Viktor Kochubey, constantly used this document.

Nicholas I awards Speransky for compiling a code of laws. Painting by Alexei Kivshenko. 1880 DIOMEDIA

One of the tasks formulated by the Decembrists, which Nicholas I tried to solve at the very beginning of his reign, was the systematization of legislation. The fact is that by 1825 the only set of Russian laws remained the Cathedral Code of 1649. All laws adopted later (including a huge body of laws from the times of Peter I and Catherine II) were published in scattered multi-volume publications of the Senate and were stored in archives of various departments. Moreover, many laws have disappeared altogether - about 70% have survived, and the rest have disappeared due to various circumstances, such as fires or careless storage. It was absolutely impossible to use all this in real court proceedings; laws had to be collected and streamlined. This was entrusted to the Second Department of the Imperial Chancellery, which was formally headed by the jurist Mikhail Balugyansky, and in fact by Mikhail Mikhailovich Speransky, assistant to Alexander I, ideologist and inspirer of his reforms. As a result, a huge amount of work was done in just three years, and in 1830 Speransky reported to the monarch that 45 volumes of the Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire were ready. Two years later, 15 volumes of the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire were prepared: laws that were later repealed were removed from the Complete Collection, and contradictions and repetitions were eliminated. This was also not enough: Speransky suggested creating new codes of laws, but the emperor said that he would leave this to his heir.

In 1839-1841, the Minister of Finance Yegor Kankrin carried out a very important financial reform. The fact is that there were no firmly established relations between different money that circulated in Russia: silver rubles, paper banknotes, as well as gold and copper coins, plus coins minted in Europe called “efimki” exchanged for each other. ha at rather arbitrary rates, the number of which reached six. In addition, by the 1830s, the value of banknotes had fallen sharply. Kankrin recognized the silver ruble as the main monetary unit and rigidly tied banknotes to it: now 1 silver ruble could be obtained for exactly 3 rubles 50 kopecks in banknotes. The population rushed to buy silver, and in the end, bank notes were completely replaced by new credit notes, partially backed by silver. Thus, a fairly stable monetary circulation was established in Russia.

Under Nicholas, the number of industrial enterprises increased significantly. Of course, this was connected not so much with the actions of the government, but with the industrial revolution that had begun, but without the permission of the government in Russia, in any case, it was impossible to open a factory, plant, or workshop. Under Nicholas, 18% of enterprises were equipped with steam engines - and it was they who produced almost half of all industrial output. In addition, during this period, the first (albeit very vague) laws appeared that regulated the relations between workers and entrepreneurs. Russia also became the first country in the world to adopt a decree on the formation of joint-stock companies.

Railway employees at Tver station. From the album "Views of the Nikolaev railway". Between 1855 and 1864

Railroad bridge. From the album "Views of the Nikolaev railway". Between 1855 and 1864 DeGolyer Library, Southern Methodist University

Bologoe station. From the album "Views of the Nikolaev railway". Between 1855 and 1864 DeGolyer Library, Southern Methodist University

Wagons on the tracks. From the album "Views of the Nikolaev railway". Between 1855 and 1864 DeGolyer Library, Southern Methodist University

Station Khimka. From the album "Views of the Nikolaev railway". Between 1855 and 1864 DeGolyer Library, Southern Methodist University

Depot. From the album "Views of the Nikolaev railway". Between 1855 and 1864 DeGolyer Library, Southern Methodist University

Finally, Nicholas I actually made a transport revolution in Russia. Since he tried to control everything that was happening, he was forced to constantly travel around the country, and thanks to this, the highways (which began to be laid under Alexander I) began to take shape in the road network. In addition, it was through the efforts of Nicholas that the first railways in Russia were built. To do this, the emperor had to overcome serious resistance: Grand Duke Mikhail Pavlovich, Kankrin, and many others were against the new mode of transport for Russia. They feared that all forests would burn in the furnaces of locomotives, that in winter the rails would be covered with ice and trains would not be able to take even small rises, that the railway would lead to an increase in vagrancy - and, finally, would undermine the very social foundations of the empire, since the nobles , merchants and peasants will travel, albeit in different wagons, but in the same train. Nevertheless, in 1837, a movement from St. Petersburg to Tsarskoe Selo was opened, and in 1851 Nikolai arrived by train from St. Petersburg to Moscow - for the celebrations in honor of the 25th anniversary of his coronation.

7. The peasant question and the position of the nobility

In a nutshell: The position of the nobility and peasantry was extremely difficult: the landlords were ruined, discontent was ripening among the peasantry, serfdom hindered the development of the economy. Nicholas I understood this and tried to take measures, but cancel serfdom did not decide.

Like his predecessors, Nicholas I was seriously concerned about the state of the two main pillars of the throne and the main Russian social forces - the nobility and the peasantry. The position of both was extremely difficult. The third department annually issued reports that began with reports of landlords killed during the year, refusals to go to corvée, felling of landowners' forests, complaints from peasants against landlords - and, most importantly, rumors spreading about the will, which made the situation explosive. Nikolay (like his predecessors, by the way) saw that the problem was becoming more and more acute, and he understood that if a social explosion is possible in Russia at all, it would be a peasant one, not an urban one. At the same time, in the 1830s, two-thirds of the estates of the nobility were mortgaged: the landowners went bankrupt, and this proved that Russian agricultural production could no longer be based on their farms. Finally, serfdom hindered the development of industry, trade and other sectors of the economy. On the other hand, Nicholas was afraid of the discontent of the nobles, and in general he was not sure that the one-time abolition of serfdom would be useful to Russia at that moment.

Peasant family before dinner. Painting by Fyodor Solntsev. 1824 State Tretyakov Gallery / DIOMEDIA

From 1826 to 1849, nine secret committees worked on peasant affairs and more than 550 various decrees were adopted regarding the relationship of landlords and nobles - for example, it was forbidden to sell peasants without land, and peasants from estates put up for auction were allowed to before the end of the auction to be redeemed at will. Nikolay could not abolish serfdom, but, firstly, by making such decisions, the Winter Palace pushed society to discuss an acute problem, and secondly, the secret committees collected a lot of material that came in handy later, in the second half of the 1850s, when the Winter Palace moved to a specific discussion of the abolition of serfdom.

In order to slow down the ruin of the nobles, in 1845 Nikolai allowed the creation of majorates - that is, indivisible estates that were transferred only to the eldest son, and were not split up between heirs. But by 1861, only 17 of them were introduced, and this situation did not save: in Russia, the majority of landowners remained small landowners, that is, they owned 16-18 serfs.

In addition, he tried to slow the erosion of the old well-born nobility by issuing a decree according to which hereditary nobility could be obtained by rising to the fifth grade of the Table of Ranks, and not the eighth as before. Getting hereditary nobility has become much more difficult.

8. Bureaucracy

In a nutshell: The desire of Nicholas I to keep all control of the country in his own hands led to the fact that the administration was formalized, the number of officials increased and the society was forbidden to evaluate the work of officials. As a result, the entire management system stalled, and the scale of treasury theft and bribery became enormous.

Portrait of Emperor Nicholas I. Painting by Horace Vernet. 1830s Wikimedia Commons

So, Nicholas I tried to do everything necessary to gradually, without shocks, lead society to prosperity with his own hands. Since he perceived the state as a family, where the emperor is the father of the nation, senior officials and officers are older relatives, and all the rest are foolish children who need constant supervision, he was not ready to accept any help from society at all. . The management was to be exclusively under the jurisdiction of the emperor and his ministers, who acted through officials who impeccably fulfill the monarch's will. This led to the formalization of the government of the country and a sharp increase in the number of officials; The movement of papers became the basis for managing the empire: orders went from top to bottom, reports from bottom to top. By the 1840s, the governor was signing about 270 documents a day and spending up to five hours doing it—even skimming through the papers.

The most serious mistake of Nicholas I was that he forbade society to evaluate the work of bureaucracy. No one, except for the immediate superiors, could not only criticize, but even praise the officials.

As a result, the bureaucracy itself became a powerful socio-political force, turned into a kind of third estate - and began to protect its own interests. Since the well-being of a bureaucrat depends on whether his superiors are pleased with him, wonderful reports went up from the very bottom, starting from the clerks: everything is fine, everything is done, the achievements are huge. With each step, these reports only became more radiant, and papers came up that had very little in common with reality. This led to the fact that the entire administration of the empire stalled: already in the early 1840s, the Minister of Justice reported to Nicholas I that 33 million cases had not been resolved in Russia, set out on at least 33 million sheets of paper. And, of course, the situation was developing in this way not only in justice.

Terrible embezzlement began in the country and. The loudest was the case of the Fund for the Disabled, from which 1,200,000 silver rubles were stolen in a few years; they brought 150,000 rubles to the chairman of one of the deanery councils to put them in a safe, but he took the money for himself and put newspapers in the safe; one county treasurer stole 80 thousand rubles, leaving a note that in this way he decided to reward himself for twenty years of impeccable service. And things like this happened all the time.

The emperor tried to personally monitor everything, adopted the most stringent laws and made the most detailed orders, but officials at absolutely all levels found ways to get around them.

9. Foreign policy until the early 1850s

In a nutshell: Until the beginning of the 1850s, the foreign policy of Nicholas I was quite successful: the government managed to protect the borders from Persians and Turks and prevent a revolution in Russia.

In foreign policy, Nicholas I had two main tasks. Firstly, he had to protect the borders of the Russian Empire in the Caucasus, in the Crimea and in Bessarabia from the most warlike neighbors, that is, the Persians and Turks. For this purpose, two wars were carried out - the Russian-Persian 1826-1828 In 1829, after the end of the Russian-Persian war, an attack was made on the Russian representative office in Tehran, during which all the employees of the embassy, except for the secretary, were killed - including the plenipotentiary ambassador of Russia Alexander Griboyedov, who played a big role in the peace negotiations with the Shah, which ended in a favorable treaty for Russia. and Russian-Turkish 1828-1829, and both of them led to remarkable results: Russia not only strengthened the borders, but also significantly increased its influence in the Balkans. Moreover, for some time (albeit a short one - from 1833 to 1841), the Unkar-Iskelesi agreement was in force between Russia and Turkey, according to which the latter had to close the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits if necessary (that is, the passage from the Mediterranean Sea to the Black) for the warships of the opponents of Russia, which made the Black Sea, in fact, the inland sea of Russia and Ottoman Empire.

Battle of Boelesti on September 26, 1828. German engraving. 1828 Brown University Library

The second goal that Nicholas I set for himself was not to let the revolution pass through the European borders of the Russian Empire. In addition, since 1825, he considered it his sacred duty to fight the revolution in Europe. In 1830, the Russian emperor was ready to send an expedition to suppress the revolution in Belgium, but neither the army nor the treasury were ready for this, and the European powers did not support the intentions of the Winter Palace. In 1831, the Russian army severely suppressed; Poland became part of the Russian Empire, the Polish constitution was destroyed, and martial law was introduced on its territory, which remained until the end of the reign of Nicholas I. When France began again in 1848, which soon spread to other countries, Nicholas I was not on jokingly alarmed: he proposed to push the army to the French borders and thought about how to suppress the revolution in Prussia on his own. Finally, Franz Joseph, head of the Austrian imperial house, asked him for help against the rebels. Nicholas I understood that this event was not very beneficial for Russia, but he saw in the Hungarian revolutionaries “not only enemies of Austria, but enemies of world order and tranquility ... who must be exterminated for our own peace of mind”, and in 1849 the Russian the army joined the Austrian troops and saved the Austrian monarchy from disintegration. One way or another, the revolution never crossed the borders of the Russian Empire.

In parallel, since the time of Alexander I, Russia has been at war with the highlanders of the North Caucasus. This war went on with varying success and dragged on for many years.

In general, the foreign policy actions of the government during the reign of Nicholas I can be called rational: it made decisions based on the goals that it set for itself and the real opportunities that the country possessed.

10. Crimean War and the death of the emperor

In a nutshell: In the early 1850s, Nicholas I made a series of catastrophic miscalculations and went to war with the Ottoman Empire. England and France sided with Turkey, Russia began to suffer defeat. This exacerbated many internal problems. In 1855, when the situation was already very difficult, Nicholas I died unexpectedly, leaving his heir Alexander the country in an extremely difficult situation.

From the beginning of the 1850s, sobriety in assessing one's own strength in the Russian leadership suddenly disappeared. The emperor considered that the time had come to finally deal with the Ottoman Empire (which he called the “sick man of Europe”), dividing its “non-indigenous” possessions (the Balkans, Egypt, the Mediterranean islands) between Russia and other great powers -you, first of all Great Britain. And here Nikolai made several catastrophic miscalculations.

First, he offered Great Britain a deal: Russia, as a result of the division of the Ottoman Empire, would receive the Orthodox territories of the Balkans that remained under Turkish rule (that is, Moldavia, Wallachia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro and Macedonia), and Egypt and Crete would go to Great Britain. But for England, this proposal was completely unacceptable: the strengthening of Russia, which became possible with the capture of the Bosporus and the Dardanelles, would be too dangerous for her, and the British agreed with the Sultan that they would receive Egypt and Crete for helping Turkey against Russia .

France was his second miscalculation. In 1851, it happened there, as a result of which President Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (Napoleon's nephew) became Emperor Napoleon III. Nicholas I decided that Napoleon was too busy with internal problems to intervene in the war, without thinking at all that the best way to strengthen power was to take part in a small victorious and just war (and the reputation of Russia, the "gendarme of Europe" , was extremely unattractive at that moment). Apart from other things, an alliance between France and England, old enemies, seemed completely impossible to Nicholas, and in this he again miscalculated.

Finally, the Russian emperor believed that Austria, out of gratitude for her help with Hungary, would take the side of Russia, or at least remain neutral. But the Habsburgs had their own interests in the Balkans, and a weak Turkey was more profitable for them than a strong Russia.

Siege of Sevastopol. Lithograph by Thomas Sinclair. 1855 DIOMEDIA

In June 1853, Russia sent troops to the Danube Principalities. In October, the Ottoman Empire officially declared war. At the beginning of 1854, France and Great Britain joined it (on the side of Turkey). The allies began actions in several directions at once, but most importantly, they forced Russia to withdraw its troops from the Danube principalities, after which the allied expeditionary force landed in the Crimea: its goal was to take Sevastopol, the main base of the Russian Black Sea Fleet. The siege of Sevastopol began in the autumn of 1854 and lasted almost a year.

The Crimean War showed all the problems associated with the control system built by Nicholas I: neither the supply of the army, nor the transport routes worked; The army was short of ammunition. In Sevastopol, the Russian army answered ten shots of the allies with one artillery shot - because there was no gunpowder. By the end of the Crimean War, only a few dozen guns remained in the Russian arsenals.

The military failures were followed by internal problems. Russia fell into an absolute diplomatic void: all the countries of Europe broke off diplomatic relations with it, except for the Vatican and the Kingdom of Naples, which meant the end of international trade, without which the Russian Empire could not exist. Public opinion in Russia began to change dramatically: many even conservative-minded people believed that defeat in the war would be more useful for Russia than victory, believing that it would not be Russia that would be defeated, but the Nikolaev regime.

In July 1854, the new Russian ambassador in Vienna, Alexander Gorchakov, found out under what conditions England and France were ready to conclude a truce with Russia and start negotiations, and advised the emperor to accept them. Nikolai hesitated, but in the autumn he was forced to agree. In early December, Austria joined the alliance of England and France. And in January 1855, Nicholas I caught a cold - and on February 18 he died unexpectedly.

Nicholas I on his deathbed. Drawing by Vladimir Gau. 1855 State Hermitage

Rumors of suicide began to spread in St. Petersburg: allegedly, the emperor demanded that his doctor give him poison. It is impossible to refute this version, but the evidence confirming it seems doubtful, especially since for a sincerely believing person, such as Nikolai Pavlovich undoubtedly was, suicide is a terrible sin. Rather, it was that the failures - both in the war and in the state as a whole - seriously undermined his health.

According to legend, talking before his death with his son Alexander, Nicholas I said: “I hand over my team to you, unfortunately, not in the order I wanted, leaving a lot of trouble and worries.” These troubles included not only the difficult and humiliating end of the Crimean War, but also the liberation of the Balkan peoples from the Ottoman Empire, the solution of the peasant question and many other problems that Alexander II had to deal with.

Nicholas I Romanov
Years of life: 1796–1855
Russian emperor (1825–1855). King of Poland and Grand Duke of Finland.

From the Romanov dynasty.

In 1816 he made a three-month journey through the European
Russia, and since October 1816. to May 1817 traveled and lived in England.

In 1817 Nikolai Pavlovich Romanov married the eldest daughter of the Prussian king Frederick William II, Princess Charlotte Frederick-Louise, who adopted the name Alexandra Feodorovna in Orthodoxy.

In 1819, his brother, Emperor Alexander I, announced that the heir to the throne, the Grand Duke, wanted to renounce his right to succeed to the throne, so Nicholas would become the heir as the next brother in seniority. Formally, Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich renounced his rights to the throne in 1823, since he had no children in a legal marriage and was married in a morganatic marriage to the Polish Countess Grudzinskaya.

On August 16, 1823, Alexander I signed a manifesto appointing his brother Nikolai Pavlovich as heir to the throne.

However, he refused to proclaim himself emperor until the final expression of the will of his elder brother. He refused to recognize Alexander's will, and on November 27 the entire population was sworn in to Constantine, and Nikolai Pavlovich himself swore allegiance to Constantine I as emperor. But Konstantin Pavlovich did not accept the throne, at the same time he did not want to formally renounce him as emperor, to whom the oath had already been taken. An ambiguous and very tense interregnum was created, which lasted twenty-five days, until December 14th.

Emperor Nicholas I

After the death of Emperor Alexander I and the abdication of the throne by Grand Duke Konstantin, Nicholas was nevertheless proclaimed emperor on December 2 (14), 1825.

To this day, the officers-conspirators, who later became known as "Decembrists", appointed a rebellion with the aim of seizing power, allegedly protecting the interests of Konstantin Pavlovich. They decided that the troops would block the Senate, in which the senators were preparing for the oath, a revolutionary delegation consisting of Pushchin and Ryleev would burst into the Senate premises demanding not to swear and to declare the tsarist government deposed and issue a revolutionary manifesto to the Russian people.

The uprising of the Decembrists greatly impressed the emperor and instilled in him fear of any manifestations of free thought. The uprising was severely suppressed, and 5 of its leaders were hanged (1826).

After the suppression of the rebellion and large-scale repressions, the emperor centralized the administrative system, strengthened the military-bureaucratic apparatus, established the political police (the Third Branch of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery), and also established strict censorship.

In 1826, a censorship charter was issued, nicknamed "cast iron", according to which it was forbidden to print almost everything that had political overtones.

Autocracy of Nicholas Romanov

Some authors have nicknamed him "the knight of autocracy". He firmly and fiercely defended the foundations of the autocratic state and fiercely suppressed attempts to change the existing system. During the reign, the persecution of the Old Believers resumed again.

On May 24, 1829 Nikolai the First Pavlovich was crowned in Warsaw as the King (Tsar) of Poland. Under him, the Polish uprising of 1830-1831 was suppressed, during which he was declared deprived of the throne by the rebels (Decree on the dethronement of Nicholas I). After the suppression of the uprising, the Kingdom of Poland lost its independence, and the Sejm and the army were divided into provinces.

Meetings of commissions were held, which were designed to alleviate the situation of serfs, a ban was introduced to kill and exile peasants to hard labor, sell them singly and without land, attribute them to newly opened factories. The peasants received the right to own private property, as well as to redeem themselves from the estates being sold.

A reform of the management of the state village was carried out and a “decree on obligated peasants” was signed, which became the foundation for the abolition of serfdom. But these measures were belated in nature, and during the life of the king, the liberation of the peasants did not happen.

The first railways appeared in Russia (since 1837). From some sources it is known that the emperor got acquainted with steam locomotives at the age of 19 during a trip to England in 1816. He became the first Russian stoker and the first Russian to ride on a steam locomotive.

Property guardianship over state peasants and the status of obliged peasants were introduced (laws of 1837–1841 and 1842), Russian laws were codified (1833), the ruble was stabilized (1839), new schools were founded under it - technical, military and educational.

In September 1826, the emperor received Pushkin, who was released by him from Mikhailov's exile, and listened to his confession that on December 14 Alexander Sergeevich was with the conspirators. After that, he did this to him: he saved the poet from general censorship (he decided to personally censor his works), instructed Pushkin to prepare a note “On Public Education”, called him after the meeting “the smartest man in Russia”.

However, the tsar never trusted the poet, seeing him as a dangerous "leader of the liberals", the great poet was under police surveillance. In 1834, Pushkin was appointed chamber junker of his court, and the role that Nikolai played in Pushkin's conflict with Dantes is estimated by historians rather contradictory. There are versions that the tsar sympathized with Pushkin's wife and arranged a fatal duel. After the death of A.S. Pushkin, a pension was assigned to his widow and children, but the tsar tried in every possible way to limit the memory of him.

He also doomed Polezhaev, who was arrested for free poetry, to years of soldiery, twice ordered M. Lermontov to be exiled to the Caucasus. By his order, the magazines "Telescope", "European", "Moscow Telegraph" were closed.

Significantly expanded the territory of Russia after the wars with Persia (1826–
1828) and Turkey (1828–1829), although the attempt to make the Black Sea an inland Russian sea met with active resistance from the great powers led by Great Britain. According to the Unkar-Iskelesi Treaty of 1833, Turkey was obliged to close the Black Sea straits (Bosporus and Dardanelles) to foreign warships at the request of Russia (the agreement was canceled in 1841). Russia's military successes caused a backlash in the West because the world powers were not interested in strengthening Russia.

The tsar wanted to intervene in the internal affairs of France and Belgium after the revolutions of 1830 that took place there, but the Polish uprising prevented the realization of his plans. After the suppression of the Polish uprising, many provisions of the Polish Constitution of 1815 were repealed.

He took part in the defeat of the Hungarian revolution of 1848-1849. The attempt of Russia, ousted from the markets of the Middle East by France and England, to restore its position in this region led to a clash of powers in the Middle East, which resulted in the Crimean War (1853–1856). In 1854 England and France entered the war on the side of Turkey. The Russian army suffered a number of defeats from the former allies and was unable to provide assistance to the besieged fortress city of Sevastopol. At the beginning of 1856, following the results of the Crimean War, the Treaty of Paris was signed, the most difficult condition for Russia was the neutralization of the Black Sea, i.e. the prohibition to have naval forces, arsenals and fortresses here. Russia became vulnerable from the sea and lost the ability to conduct an active foreign policy in this region.

During his reign, Russia participated in wars: the Caucasian War of 1817-1864, the Russian-Persian War of 1826-1828, the Russian-Turkish War of 1828-29, Crimean War 1853-56

Among the people, the tsar received the nickname "Nikolai Palkin", because in childhood he beat his comrades with a stick. In historiography, this nickname was established after the story of L.N. Tolstoy "After the Ball".

Death of Tsar Nicholas 1

He died suddenly on February 18 (March 2), 1855 at the height of the Crimean War; according to the most common version - from transient pneumonia (he caught a cold shortly before his death, taking a military parade in a light uniform) or flu. The emperor forbade doing an autopsy and embalming his body.

There is a version that the king committed suicide by drinking poison, due to defeats in the Crimean War. After his death, the Russian throne was inherited by his son, Alexander II.

He was married once in 1817 to Princess Charlotte of Prussia, daughter of Friedrich Wilhelm III, who received the name Alexandra Feodorovna after converting to Orthodoxy. They had children:

Alexander II (1818-1881)
Maria (08/6/1819-02/09/1876), was married to the Duke of Leuchtenberg and Count Stroganov.
Olga (08/30/1822 - 10/18/1892), was married to the King of Württemberg.
Alexandra (12/06/1825 - 29/07/1844), married to Prince of Hesse-Kassel
Konstantin (1827-1892)
Nicholas (1831-1891)
Mikhail (1832-1909)

Personal qualities of Nikolai Romanov

He led an ascetic and healthy lifestyle. Was an Orthodox believer a Christian, he did not smoke and did not like smokers, did not drink strong drinks, walked a lot and did drills with weapons. He had a remarkable memory and a great capacity for work. Archbishop Innokenty wrote about him: "He was ... such a crowned bearer, for whom the royal throne served not as a head to peace, but as an incentive to unceasing work." According to the memoirs of the maid of honor of Her Imperial Majesty, Anna Tyutcheva, her favorite phrase was: "I work like a galley slave."

The king's love for justice and order was well known. I personally visited military formations, examined fortifications, schools, government agencies. He always gave concrete advice to correct the situation.

He had a pronounced ability to form a team of talented, creatively gifted people. The employees of Nicholas I Pavlovich were the Minister of Public Education Count S. S. Uvarov, the commander Field Marshal His Serene Highness Prince I. F. Paskevich, the Minister of Finance Count E. F. Kankrin, the Minister of State Property Count P. D. Kiselev and others.

The height of the king was 205 cm.

All historians agree on one thing: the tsar was undoubtedly a bright figure among the rulers-emperors of Russia.

Nicholas II and his family

“They died martyrs for humanity. Their true greatness did not stem from their royal dignity, but from that amazing moral height to which they gradually rose. They have become the perfect force. And in their very humiliation, they were a striking manifestation of that amazing clarity of the soul, against which all violence and all rage are powerless, and which triumphs in death itself ”(Tsarevich Alexei’s teacher Pierre Gilliard).

NicholasII Aleksandrovich Romanov

Nicholas II

Nikolai Alexandrovich Romanov (Nicholas II) was born on May 6 (18), 1868 in Tsarskoye Selo. He was the eldest son of the Emperor Alexander III and Empress Maria Feodorovna. He received a strict, almost harsh upbringing under the guidance of his father. "I need normal healthy Russian children," - such a requirement was put forward by Emperor Alexander III to the educators of his children.

The future emperor Nicholas II received a good education at home: he knew several languages, studied Russian and world history, was deeply versed in military affairs, and was a widely erudite person.

Empress Alexandra Feodorovna

Tsarevich Nikolai Alexandrovich and Princess Alice

Princess Alice Victoria Helena Louise Beatrice was born on May 25 (June 7), 1872 in Darmstadt, the capital of a small German duchy, already forcibly included by that time in the German Empire. Alice's father was Ludwig, Grand Duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, and her mother was Princess Alice of England, the third daughter of Queen Victoria. As a child, Princess Alice (Alyx, as her family called her) was a cheerful, lively child, for which she was nicknamed "Sunny" (Sunny). There were seven children in the family, all of them were brought up in patriarchal traditions. Mother set strict rules for them: not a single minute of idleness! The clothes and food of the children were very simple. The girls themselves cleaned their rooms, performed some household chores. But her mother died of diphtheria at the age of thirty-five. After the tragedy she experienced (and she was only 6 years old), little Alix became withdrawn, aloof, and began to shun strangers; she calmed down only in the family circle. After the death of her daughter, Queen Victoria transferred her love to her children, especially to the youngest, Alix. Her upbringing and education were under the control of her grandmother.

marriage

The first meeting of the sixteen-year-old heir to Tsesarevich Nikolai Alexandrovich and the very young Princess Alice took place in 1884, and in 1889, having reached the age of majority, Nikolai turned to his parents with a request to bless him for marriage with Princess Alice, but his father refused, citing his youth as the reason for the refusal. I had to come to terms with my father's will. But usually soft and even timid in dealing with his father, Nicholas showed perseverance and determination - Alexander III gives his blessing to the marriage. But the joy of mutual love was overshadowed by a sharp deterioration in the health of Emperor Alexander III, who died on October 20, 1894 in the Crimea. The next day, in the palace church of the Livadia Palace, Princess Alice was converted to Orthodoxy, was anointed, receiving the name of Alexandra Feodorovna.

Despite the mourning for the father, they decided not to postpone the marriage, but to hold it in the most modest atmosphere on November 14, 1894. So for Nicholas II, family life and government began at the same time. Russian Empire he was 26 years old.

He had a lively mind - he always quickly grasped the essence of the issues reported to him, an excellent memory, especially for faces, the nobility of the way of thinking. But Nikolai Alexandrovich, with his gentleness, tact in addressing, and modest manners, gave the impression to many of a man who did not inherit the strong will of his father, who left him the following political testament: « I bequeath to you to love everything that serves the good, honor and dignity of Russia. Protect autocracy, remembering that you are responsible for the fate of your subjects before the Throne of the Most High. Faith in God and the holiness of your royal duty be the foundation of your life for you. Be firm and courageous, never show weakness. Listen to everyone, there is nothing shameful in this, but listen to yourself and your conscience.

Beginning of the reign

From the very beginning of his reign, Emperor Nicholas II treated the duties of the monarch as a sacred duty. He deeply believed that even for the 100-million Russian people, tsarist power was and remains sacred.

Coronation of Nicholas II

1896 is the year of coronation celebrations in Moscow. The sacrament of chrismation was performed over the royal couple - as a sign that, just as there is no higher, there is no harder on earth royal power, there is no burden heavier than royal service. But the coronation celebrations in Moscow were overshadowed by the disaster at the Khodynka field: a stampede occurred in the crowd waiting for the royal gifts, in which many people died. According to official figures, 1389 people died and 1300 were seriously injured, according to unofficial data - 4000. But the events on the occasion of the coronation were not canceled in connection with this tragedy, but continued according to the program: in the evening of the same day, a ball was held at the French ambassador. The sovereign was present at all planned events, including the ball, which was perceived ambiguously in society. The tragedy at Khodynka was perceived by many as a gloomy omen for the reign of Nicholas II, and when the question of his canonization arose in 2000, it was cited as an argument against it.

Family

On November 3, 1895, the first daughter was born in the family of Emperor Nicholas II - Olga; she was born Tatyana(May 29, 1897), Maria(June 14, 1899) and Anastasia(June 5, 1901). But the family was waiting for the heir.

Olga

From childhood, she grew up very kind and sympathetic, deeply worried about other people's misfortunes and always tried to help. She was the only one of the four sisters who could openly object to her father and mother and was very reluctant to submit to her parents' will if circumstances required it.

Olga loved to read more than other sisters, later she began to write poetry. The French teacher and friend of the imperial family, Pierre Gilliard, noted that Olga learned the material of the lessons better and faster than the sisters. It was easy for her, that's why she was sometimes lazy. " Grand Duchess Olga Nikolaevna was a typical good Russian girl with a big soul. She made an impression on those around her with her tenderness, her charming sweet treatment of everyone. She behaved with everyone evenly, calmly and amazingly simply and naturally. She did not like housekeeping, but she loved solitude and books. She was developed and very well-read; She had an aptitude for the arts: she played the piano, sang, and studied singing in Petrograd, drawing well. She was very modest and did not like luxury.”(From the memoirs of M. Dieterikhs).

There was an unfulfilled plan for Olga's marriage to a Romanian prince (future Carol II). Olga Nikolaevna categorically refused to leave her homeland, to live in a foreign country, she said that she was Russian and wanted to remain so.

Tatyana

As a child, her favorite activities were: serso (playing hoop), riding a pony and a bulky bicycle - tandem - paired with Olga, leisurely picking flowers and berries. From quiet home entertainment, she preferred drawing, picture books, confused children's embroidery - knitting and a "doll's house".

Of the Grand Duchesses, she was the closest to Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, she always tried to surround her mother with care and peace, to listen and understand her. Many considered her the most beautiful of all the sisters. P. Gilliard recalled: “ Tatyana Nikolaevna was by nature rather restrained, had a will, but was less frank and direct than her older sister. She was also less gifted, but atoned for this shortcoming by great consistency and evenness of character. She was very beautiful, although she did not have the charms of Olga Nikolaevna. If only the Empress made a difference between the Daughters, then Tatyana Nikolaevna was Her favorite. Not that Her sisters loved Mother less than Her, but Tatyana Nikolaevna knew how to surround Her with constant care and never allowed herself to show that She was out of sorts. With her beauty and natural ability to keep herself in society, She overshadowed her sister, who was less concerned with Her special and somehow faded into the background. Nevertheless, these two sisters dearly loved each other, there was only a year and a half difference between them, which, naturally, brought them closer. They were called "big", while Maria Nikolaevna and Anastasia Nikolaevna continued to be called "small".

Maria

Contemporaries describe Maria as a lively, cheerful girl, too large for her age, with light blond hair and large dark blue eyes, which the family affectionately called "Masha's Saucers".

Her French teacher, Pierre Gilliard, said that Maria was tall, with a good physique and rosy cheeks.

General M. Dieterikhs recalled: “Grand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna was the most beautiful, typically Russian, good-natured, cheerful, even-tempered, friendly girl. She knew how and loved to talk with everyone, especially with a simple person. During walks in the park, she always used to start conversations with the soldiers of the guard, questioned them and perfectly remembered who had what to call his wife, how many children, how much land, etc. She always found many common topics for conversations with them. For her simplicity, she received the nickname "Mashka" in the family; that was the name of her sisters and Tsarevich Alexei Nikolaevich.

Maria had a talent for drawing, she was good at sketching, using her left hand for this, but she had no interest in schoolwork. Many noticed that this young girl was 170 cm tall and by force went to her grandfather, Emperor Alexander III. General M. K. Diterichs recalled that when the sick Tsarevich Alexei needed to get somewhere, and he himself was unable to walk, he called: “Masha, carry me!”

They remember that little Mary was especially attached to her father. As soon as she started walking, she constantly tried to sneak out of the nursery with a cry of “I want to go to daddy!” The nanny had to almost lock her up so that the baby would not interrupt the next reception or work with the ministers.

Like the rest of the sisters, Maria loved animals, she had a Siamese kitten, then she was given a white mouse, which settled comfortably in the sisters' room.

According to the recollections of the surviving close associates, the Red Army soldiers guarding the Ipatiev house sometimes showed tactlessness and rudeness towards the prisoners. However, here, too, Maria managed to inspire respect for the guards; so, there are stories about the case when the guards, in the presence of two sisters, allowed themselves to let off a couple of greasy jokes, after which Tatiana “white as death” jumped out, Maria scolded the soldiers in a stern voice, stating that in this way they could only arouse hostility relation. Here, in the Ipatiev house, Maria celebrated her 19th birthday.

Anastasia

Like other children of the emperor, Anastasia was educated at home. Education began at the age of eight, the program included French, English and German languages, history, geography, the Law of God, natural Sciences, drawing, grammar, arithmetic, as well as dance and music. Anastasia did not differ in diligence in her studies, she could not stand grammar, she wrote with terrifying mistakes, and called arithmetic with childlike immediacy "svin". English teacher Sidney Gibbs recalled that once she tried to bribe him with a bouquet of flowers to increase her grade, and after he refused, she gave these flowers to a Russian teacher, Pyotr Vasilyevich Petrov.

During the war, the empress gave many of the palace rooms for hospital premises. The older sisters Olga and Tatyana, together with their mother, became sisters of mercy; Maria and Anastasia, being too young for such hard work, became patronesses of the hospital. Both sisters gave their own money to buy medicines, read aloud to the wounded, knitted things for them, played cards and checkers, wrote letters home under their dictation and entertained them with telephone conversations in the evenings, sewed linen, prepared bandages and lint.

According to the memoirs of contemporaries, Anastasia was small and dense, with blond hair with a reddish tint, with large blue eyes inherited from her father.

The figure of Anastasia was quite dense, like her sister Maria. She inherited wide hips, a slender waist and a good bust from her mother. Anastasia was short, strongly built, but at the same time seemed somewhat airy. Her face and physique were rustic, yielding to the stately Olga and the fragile Tatyana. Anastasia was the only one who inherited the shape of her face from her father - slightly elongated, with protruding cheekbones and a wide forehead. She was very much like her father. Large facial features - big eyes, a large nose, soft lips made Anastasia look like a young Maria Fedorovna - her grandmother.

The girl was distinguished by a light and cheerful character, she loved to play bast shoes, forfeits, in serso, she could tirelessly rush around the palace for hours, playing hide and seek. She easily climbed trees and often, out of sheer mischief, refused to descend to the ground. She was inexhaustible in inventions. With her light hand, it became fashionable to weave flowers and ribbons into her hair, which little Anastasia was very proud of. She was inseparable from her older sister Maria, adored her brother and could entertain him for hours when another illness put Alexei to bed. Anna Vyrubova recalled that "Anastasia was as if made of mercury, and not of flesh and blood."

Alexei

On July 30 (August 12), 1904, the fifth child and the only, long-awaited son, Tsarevich Alexei Nikolayevich, appeared in Peterhof. The royal couple attended the glorification of Seraphim of Sarov on July 18, 1903 in Sarov, where the emperor and empress prayed for the granting of an heir. Named at birth Alexey- in honor of St. Alexis of Moscow. On the mother's side, Alexei inherited hemophilia, which was carried by some of the daughters and granddaughters of the English Queen Victoria. The disease became apparent in the Tsarevich already in the autumn of 1904, when a two-month-old baby began to bleed heavily. In 1912, while resting in Belovezhskaya Pushcha, the Tsarevich unsuccessfully jumped into a boat and severely injured his thigh: the hematoma that arose did not resolve for a long time, the child’s health was very difficult, and bulletins were officially printed about him. There was a real threat of death.

The appearance of Alexei combined the best features of his father and mother. According to the memoirs of contemporaries, Alexei was a handsome boy, with a clean, open face.

His character was complaisant, he adored his parents and sisters, and those souls doted on the young Tsarevich, especially the Grand Duchess Maria. Aleksey was capable in studies, like the sisters, he made progress in learning languages. From the memoirs of N.A. Sokolov, author of the book "The Murder of the Royal Family: “The heir to Tsarevich Alexei Nikolayevich was a boy of 14 years old, smart, observant, receptive, affectionate, cheerful. He was lazy and did not particularly like books. He combined the features of his father and mother: he inherited the simplicity of his father, was alien to arrogance, arrogance, but had his own will and obeyed only his father. His mother wanted to, but could not be strict with him. His teacher Bitner says of him: "He had a great will and would never submit to any woman." He was very disciplined, withdrawn and very patient. Undoubtedly, the disease left its mark on him and developed these traits in him. He did not like court etiquette, he liked to be with the soldiers and learned their language, using in his diary purely folk expressions he had overheard. His stinginess reminded him of his mother: he did not like to spend his money and collected various abandoned things: nails, lead paper, ropes, etc. ”

The Tsarevich was very fond of his army and was in awe of the Russian warrior, respect for whom was passed on to him from his father and from all his sovereign ancestors, who always taught him to love a simple soldier. The prince's favorite food was "shchi and porridge and black bread, which all my soldiers eat," as he always said. Every day they brought him samples of cabbage soup and porridge from the soldiers' kitchen of the Free Regiment; Alexey ate everything and licked the spoon, saying: “This is delicious, not like our lunch.”

During the First World War, Alexei, who was the chief of several regiments and chieftain of all Cossack troops, visited the active army with his father, awarded distinguished fighters. He was awarded the silver St. George medal of the 4th degree.

Raising children in the royal family

The life of the family was not luxurious for the purpose of education - the parents were afraid that wealth and bliss would spoil the character of the children. The imperial daughters lived two by two in a room - on one side of the corridor there was a “big couple” (eldest daughters Olga and Tatyana), on the other - a “small couple” (younger daughters Maria and Anastasia).

Family of Nicholas II

In the younger sisters' room, the walls were painted in grey colour, the ceiling is painted with butterflies, the furniture is designed in white and green tones, simple and artless. The girls slept on folding army beds, each labeled with the owner's name, under thick monogrammed blue blankets. This tradition came from the time of Catherine the Great (she introduced such an order for the first time for her grandson Alexander). The beds could easily be moved to be closer to the warmth in winter, or even in my brother's room, next to the Christmas tree, and closer to the open windows in summer. Here, everyone had a small bedside table and sofas with small embroidered little thoughts. The walls were decorated with icons and photographs; the girls loved to take pictures themselves - a huge number of pictures have still been preserved, taken mainly in the Livadia Palace - a favorite vacation spot for the family. Parents tried to keep the children constantly busy with something useful, girls were taught to needlework.

As in simple poor families, the younger ones often had to wear out the things that the older ones grew out of. They also relied on pocket money, which could be used to buy each other small gifts.

The education of children usually began when they reached the age of 8. The first subjects were reading, calligraphy, arithmetic, the Law of God. Later, languages \u200b\u200bare added to this - Russian, English, French, and even later - German. Dancing, playing the piano, good manners, natural sciences and grammar were also taught to the imperial daughters.

Imperial daughters were ordered to get up at 8 o'clock in the morning, take a cold bath. Breakfast at 9 o'clock, second breakfast - at one or half past one on Sundays. At 5 pm - tea, at 8 - common dinner.

Everyone who knew family life emperor, noted the amazing simplicity, mutual love and consent of all family members. Aleksey Nikolayevich was its center; all attachments, all hopes were concentrated on him. In relation to the mother, the children were full of respect and courtesy. When the empress was unwell, the daughters arranged alternate duty with their mother, and the one who was on duty that day remained hopelessly with her. The relationship of the children with the sovereign was touching - for them he was at the same time king, father and comrade; their feelings for their father went from almost religious worship to complete gullibility and the most cordial friendship. A very important memory of the spiritual state of the royal family was left by the priest Afanasy Belyaev, who confessed the children before their departure to Tobolsk: “The impression from the confession turned out like this: grant, Lord, that all children be morally as high as the children of the former king. Such gentleness, humility, obedience to parental will, unconditional devotion to the will of God, purity in thoughts and complete ignorance of earthly dirt - passionate and sinful - led me to amazement, and I was decidedly perplexed: should I, as a confessor, be reminded of sins, maybe they unknown, and how to dispose to repentance for the sins known to me.

Rasputin

A circumstance that constantly darkened the life of the imperial family was the incurable illness of the heir. Frequent attacks of hemophilia, during which the child experienced severe suffering, made everyone suffer, especially the mother. But the nature of the disease was a state secret, and parents often had to hide their feelings while participating in the normal routine of palace life. The Empress was well aware that medicine was powerless here. But, being a deep believer, she indulged in fervent prayer in anticipation of a miraculous healing. She was ready to believe anyone who was able to help her grief, somehow alleviate the suffering of her son: the illness of the Tsarevich opened the doors to the palace for those people who were recommended to the royal family as healers and prayer books. Among them, the peasant Grigory Rasputin appears in the palace, who was destined to play his role in the life of the royal family and in the fate of the whole country - but he had no right to claim this role.

Rasputin was presented as a kind holy old man helping Alexei. Under the influence of their mother, all four girls had complete confidence in him and shared all their simple secrets. Rasputin's friendship with the imperial children was evident from their correspondence. Those who sincerely loved the royal family tried to somehow limit the influence of Rasputin, but the empress resisted this very much, since the “holy elder” somehow knew how to alleviate the plight of Tsarevich Alexei.

World War I

Russia was at that time at the pinnacle of glory and power: industry was developing at an unprecedented pace, the army and navy were becoming more and more powerful, and agrarian reform. It seemed that all internal problems would be safely resolved in the near future.

But this was not destined to come true: the First World War. Using as a pretext the assassination of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne by a terrorist, Austria attacked Serbia. Emperor Nicholas II considered it his Christian duty to stand up for the Orthodox Serbian brothers...

On July 19 (August 1), 1914, Germany declared war on Russia, which soon became a pan-European one. In August 1914, Russia launched a hasty offensive in East Prussia to help his ally France, this resulted in a heavy defeat. By autumn, it became clear that the near end of the war was not in sight. But with the outbreak of war, internal disagreements subsided in the country. Even the most difficult issues became solvable - it was possible to implement a ban on the sale of alcoholic beverages for the entire duration of the war. The sovereign regularly travels to Headquarters, visits the army, dressing stations, military hospitals, rear factories. The Empress, having taken courses as sisters of mercy, together with her eldest daughters Olga and Tatyana, looked after the wounded in her Tsarskoye Selo infirmary for several hours a day.

On August 22, 1915, Nicholas II left for Mogilev to take command of all the armed forces of Russia and from that day on he was constantly at Headquarters, often with him was the heir. About once a month he came to Tsarskoe Selo for a few days. All responsible decisions were made by him, but at the same time he instructed the empress to maintain relations with the ministers and keep him informed of what was happening in the capital. She was the closest person to him, whom he could always rely on. Every day she sent detailed letters-reports to Headquarters, which was well known to the ministers.

The tsar spent January and February 1917 in Tsarskoye Selo. He felt that the political situation was becoming more and more tense, but he continued to hope that the feeling of patriotism would still prevail, he maintained faith in the army, whose situation had improved significantly. This raised hopes for the success of the great spring offensive, which would deal a decisive blow to Germany. But this was well understood by the forces hostile to him.

Nicholas II and Tsarevich Alexei

On February 22, Emperor Nicholas left for Headquarters - at that moment the opposition managed to sow panic in the capital because of the impending famine. The next day, unrest began in Petrograd, caused by interruptions in the supply of grain, they soon grew into a strike under the political slogans "Down with the war", "Down with the autocracy." Attempts to disperse the demonstrators were unsuccessful. In the meantime, there were debates in the Duma with sharp criticism of the government - but first of all, these were attacks against the emperor. On February 25, a message was received at Headquarters about unrest in the capital. Having learned about the state of affairs, Nicholas II sends troops to Petrograd to maintain order, and then he himself goes to Tsarskoye Selo. His decision was obviously caused by the desire to be at the center of events to make quick decisions if necessary, and anxiety for the family. This departure from Headquarters turned out to be fatal.. For 150 miles from Petrograd, the royal train was stopped - the next station, Lyuban, was in the hands of the rebels. I had to follow through the Dno station, but even here the path was closed. On the evening of March 1, the emperor arrived in Pskov, at the headquarters of the commander of the Northern Front, General N. V. Ruzsky.

In the capital came complete anarchy. But Nicholas II and the army command believed that the Duma was in control of the situation; in telephone conversations with the chairman of the State Duma, M. V. Rodzianko, the emperor agreed to all concessions if the Duma could restore order in the country. The answer was: it's too late. Was it really so? After all, only Petrograd and its environs were embraced by the revolution, and the tsar's authority among the people and in the army was still great. The answer of the Duma confronted him with a choice: renunciation or an attempt to go to Petrograd with troops loyal to him - the latter meant a civil war, while the external enemy was within Russian borders.

Everyone around the king also convinced him that renunciation was the only way out. This was especially insisted on by the commanders of the fronts, whose demands were supported by the Chief of the General Staff, M. V. Alekseev. And after long and painful reflections, the emperor made a hard-won decision: to abdicate both for himself and for the heir, in view of his incurable illness, in favor of his brother, Grand Duke Mikhail Alexandrovich. On March 8, the commissars of the Provisional Government, having arrived in Mogilev, announced through General Alekseev that the emperor had been arrested and that he had to proceed to Tsarskoye Selo. For the last time, he turned to his troops, calling on them to be loyal to the Provisional Government, the very one that arrested him, to fulfill their duty to the Motherland until complete victory. The farewell order to the troops, which expressed the nobility of the emperor's soul, his love for the army, faith in it, was hidden from the people by the Provisional Government, which banned its publication.

According to the memoirs of contemporaries, following their mother, all the sisters sobbed bitterly on the day the First World War was declared. During the war, the empress gave many of the palace rooms for hospital premises. The older sisters Olga and Tatyana, together with their mother, became sisters of mercy; Maria and Anastasia became patronesses of the hospital and helped the wounded: they read to them, wrote letters to their relatives, gave their personal money to buy medicines, gave concerts to the wounded and did their best to distract them from their heavy thoughts. They spent their days in the hospital, reluctantly breaking away from work for the sake of lessons.

On the abdication of NicholasII

In the life of Emperor Nicholas II there were two periods of unequal duration and spiritual significance - the time of his reign and the time of his imprisonment.

Nicholas II after abdication

From the moment of renunciation, the inner spiritual state of the emperor attracts the most attention. It seemed to him that he made the only right decision, but, nevertheless, he experienced severe mental anguish. “If I am an obstacle to the happiness of Russia and all the social forces now at the head of it ask me to leave the throne and pass it on to my son and brother, then I am ready to do this, I am ready not only to give my kingdom, but also to give my life for the Motherland. I think no one doubts this from those who know me,- he said to General D.N. Dubensky.

On the very day of his abdication, March 2, the same general recorded the words of the Minister of the Imperial Court, Count V. B. Frederiks: “ The sovereign is deeply sad that he is considered an obstacle to the happiness of Russia, that they found it necessary to ask him to leave the throne. He was worried about the thought of a family that remained alone in Tsarskoye Selo, the children were sick. The sovereign suffers terribly, but he is such a person who will never show his grief in public. Restrained Nicholas and personal diary. Only at the very end of the entry for that day does his inner feeling break through: “You need my renunciation. The bottom line is that in the name of saving Russia and keeping the army at the front in peace, you need to decide on this step. I agreed. A draft Manifesto was sent from Headquarters. In the evening, Guchkov and Shulgin arrived from Petrograd, with whom I spoke and handed them the signed and revised Manifesto. At one o'clock in the morning I left Pskov with a heavy feeling of what I had experienced. Around treason and cowardice and deceit!

The Provisional Government announced the arrest of Emperor Nicholas II and his wife and their detention in Tsarskoe Selo. Their arrest did not have the slightest legal basis or reason.

House arrest

According to the memoirs of Yulia Alexandrovna von Den, a close friend of Alexandra Feodorovna, in February 1917, at the very height of the revolution, the children fell ill with measles one by one. Anastasia was the last to fall ill, when the Tsarskoye Selo palace was already surrounded by the insurgent troops. The tsar was at that time at the headquarters of the commander-in-chief in Mogilev, only the empress with her children remained in the palace.

At 9 o'clock on March 2, 1917, they learned about the abdication of the king. On March 8, Count Pave Benckendorff announced that the Provisional Government had decided to subject the imperial family to house arrest in Tsarskoe Selo. It was proposed to draw up a list of people wishing to stay with them. And on March 9, the children were informed about the father's abdication.

Nicholas returned a few days later. Life under house arrest began.

Despite everything, the education of children continued. The whole process was led by Gilliard, a teacher of French; Nicholas himself taught the children geography and history; Baroness Buxhoeveden taught English and music lessons; Mademoiselle Schneider taught arithmetic; Countess Gendrikova - drawing; Dr. Evgeny Sergeevich Botkin - Russian; Alexandra Feodorovna - The Law of God. The eldest, Olga, despite the fact that her education was completed, often attended classes and read a lot, improving in what had already been learned.

At this time, there was still hope for the family of Nicholas II to go abroad; but George V decided not to risk it and preferred to sacrifice the royal family. The provisional government appointed a commission to investigate the activities of the emperor, but, despite all efforts to find at least something discrediting the king, nothing was found. When his innocence was proved and it became obvious that there was no crime behind him, the Provisional Government, instead of releasing the sovereign and his wife, decided to remove the prisoners from Tsarskoye Selo: send the family of the former tsar to Tobolsk. On the last day before departure, they had time to say goodbye to the servants, to visit their favorite places in the park, ponds, islands for the last time. On August 1, 1917, a train flying the flag of the Japanese Red Cross mission departed in the strictest confidence from the siding.

In Tobolsk

Nikolai Romanov with his daughters Olga, Anastasia and Tatyana in Tobolsk in the winter of 1917

On August 26, 1917, the imperial family arrived in Tobolsk on the ship "Rus". The house was not yet completely ready for them, so they spent the first eight days on the ship. Then, under escort, the imperial family was taken to the two-story governor's mansion, where they were to live from now on. The girls were given a corner bedroom on the second floor, where they were placed on the same army bunks brought from home.

But life went on at a measured pace and strictly subject to the discipline of the family: from 9.00 to 11.00 - lessons. Then an hour break for a walk with his father. Again lessons from 12.00 to 13.00. Dinner. From 14.00 to 16.00 walks and simple entertainment like home performances or skiing from a slide built by oneself. Anastasia enthusiastically harvested firewood and sewed. Further on the schedule followed the evening service and going to bed.

In September, they were allowed to go out to the nearest church for the morning service: the soldiers formed a living corridor right up to the very church doors. The attitude of local residents to the royal family was benevolent. The emperor followed with alarm the events taking place in Russia. He understood that the country was rapidly heading towards destruction. Kornilov invited Kerensky to send troops to Petrograd in order to put an end to the Bolshevik agitation, which was becoming more and more threatening from day to day, but the Provisional Government also rejected this last attempt to save the Motherland. The king was well aware that this was the only way to avoid imminent disaster. He repents of his renunciation. “After all, he made this decision only in the hope that those who wanted him removed would still be able to continue the war with honor and not ruin the cause of saving Russia. He was afraid then that his refusal to sign the renunciation would lead to civil war in the mind of the enemy. The tsar did not want even a drop of Russian blood to be shed because of him ... It was painful for the emperor to now see the futility of his sacrifice and realize that, having in mind then only the good of the motherland, he harmed her by his renunciation, ”- recalls P. Gilliard, a teacher of children.

Yekaterinburg

Nicholas II

In March, it became known that a separate peace was concluded with Germany in Brest. . "This is such a shame for Russia and it is" tantamount to suicide”, - the emperor gave such an assessment of this event. When a rumor spread that the Germans were demanding that the Bolsheviks hand over the royal family to them, the empress said: “I would rather die in Russia than be saved by the Germans”. The first Bolshevik detachment arrived in Tobolsk on Tuesday 22 April. Commissar Yakovlev inspects the house, gets acquainted with the prisoners. A few days later, he announces that he must take the emperor away, assuring him that nothing bad will happen to him. Assuming that they wanted to send him to Moscow to sign a separate peace with Germany, the emperor, who under no circumstances left his high spiritual nobility, firmly said: “ I'd rather have my hand cut off than sign this shameful treaty."

The heir at that time was sick, and it was impossible to take him. Despite fear for her sick son, the empress decides to follow her husband; Grand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna also went with them. Only on May 7, family members who remained in Tobolsk received news from Yekaterinburg: the emperor, empress and Maria Nikolaevna were imprisoned in the Ipatiev house. When the prince's health improved, the rest of the family members from Tobolsk were also taken to Yekaterinburg and imprisoned in the same house, but most of the people close to the family were not allowed to see them.

There is little evidence of the Yekaterinburg period of imprisonment of the royal family. Almost no letters. Basically, this period is known only from brief entries in the diary of the emperor and the testimony of witnesses in the case of the murder of the royal family.

Living conditions in the "special purpose house" were much more difficult than in Tobolsk. The guard consisted of 12 soldiers who lived here and ate with them at the same table. Commissar Avdeev, an inveterate drunkard, daily humiliated the royal family. I had to put up with hardships, endure bullying and obey. The royal couple and daughters slept on the floor, without beds. At dinner, a family of seven was given only five spoons; the guards sitting at the same table smoked, blowing smoke into the faces of the prisoners ...

A walk in the garden was allowed once a day, at first for 15-20 minutes, and then no more than five. Only doctor Evgeny Botkin remained near the royal family, who surrounded the prisoners with care and acted as an intermediary between them and the commissars, protecting them from the rudeness of the guards. A few faithful servants remained: Anna Demidova, I. S. Kharitonov, A. E. Trupp and the boy Lenya Sednev.

All the prisoners understood the possibility of an early end. Once, Tsarevich Alexei said: “If they kill, if only they don’t torture ...” Almost in complete isolation, they showed nobility and fortitude. In one of her letters, Olga Nikolaevna says: The father asks to convey to all those who remained devoted to him, and to those on whom they can have influence, so that they do not avenge him, since he has forgiven everyone and prays for everyone, and that they do not avenge themselves, and that they remember that the evil that is now in the world will be even stronger, but that it is not evil that will overcome evil, but only love.

Even the rude guards gradually softened - they were surprised by the simplicity of all members of the royal family, their dignity, even Commissar Avdeev softened. Therefore, he was replaced by Yurovsky, and the guards were replaced by Austro-German prisoners and selected people from among the executioners of the "emergency". The life of the inhabitants of the Ipatiev House turned into a continuous martyrdom. But preparations for the execution were made in secret from the prisoners.

Murder

On the night of July 16-17, around the beginning of the third, Yurovsky woke up the royal family and spoke of the need to move to a safe place. When everyone was dressed and gathered, Yurovsky led them to a basement room with one barred window. All were outwardly calm. The sovereign carried Alexei Nikolaevich in his arms, the rest had pillows and other small things in their hands. In the room where they were brought, the empress and Alexei Nikolaevich sat on chairs. The sovereign stood in the center next to the prince. The rest of the family and servants were in different parts room, while the killers were waiting for a signal. Yurovsky approached the emperor and said: "Nikolai Alexandrovich, by order of the Ural Regional Council, you and your family will be shot." These words were unexpected for the king, he turned towards the family, stretched out his hands to them and said: “What? What?" The empress and Olga Nikolaevna wanted to cross themselves, but at that moment Yurovsky shot the tsar from a revolver almost point-blank several times, and he immediately fell. Almost simultaneously, everyone else began to shoot - everyone knew their victim in advance.

Those already lying on the floor were finished off with shots and bayonets. When it was all over, Alexei Nikolaevich suddenly groaned weakly - they shot at him several more times. Eleven bodies lay on the floor in streams of blood. After making sure that their victims were dead, the killers began to remove jewelry from them. Then the dead were carried out into the yard, where a truck was already standing ready - the noise of its engine was supposed to drown out the shots in the basement. Even before sunrise, the bodies were taken to the forest in the vicinity of the village of Koptyaki. For three days, the killers tried to hide their atrocity...

Together with the imperial family, their servants who followed them into exile were also shot: Dr. E. S. Botkin, Empress A. S. Demidov’s room girl, court cook I. M. Kharitonov and footman A. E. Trupp. In addition, Adjutant General I. L. Tatishchev, Marshal Prince V. A. Dolgorukov, the “uncle” of the heir K. G. Nagorny, the children’s lackey I. D. Sednev, the maid of honor were killed in various places and in different months of 1918 Empress A. V. Gendrikova and Goflektress E. A. Schneider.

Temple-on-the-Blood in Yekaterinburg - built on the site of the house of engineer Ipatiev, where Nicholas II and his family were shot on July 17, 1918

Time passes and a bygone era becomes history. The family of the last emperor of the Romanov dynasty - Nicholas II.

History is interesting and multifaceted, over the centuries a lot has changed. If now we perceive the world around us as commonplace, then palaces, castles, towers, estates, carriages, household items of that time are already a distant history for us and sometimes are the subject of study by archaeologists. An ordinary inkwell, a pen, an abacus can no longer be found in modern school. But just a century ago, education was different.

"Future Monarchs"

All representatives of the imperial family, future monarchs, received an excellent education. Education began at an early age, first of all, they taught literacy, arithmetic, foreign languages, then there was the study of other disciplines. Military training was obligatory for young men, they were also taught to dance, and fine literature, and everything that a well-educated young man was supposed to know. As a rule, the training took place on a religious basis. Teachers for royal persons were carefully chosen, they had to give not only knowledge, but also instill spiritual and moral ideas and skills: accuracy, diligence, respect for elders. The rulers of the Romanov dynasty evoked sincere admiration from their subjects, served as an example for everyone.

Family of Emperor Nicholas II

"OTMA"

We can see a positive example in the upbringing and education of children in the family of the last emperor of the Romanov dynasty, Nicholas II. There were four daughters and a son in his family. Daughters were conditionally divided into two pairs: the older couple - Olga and Tatyana, and the youngest - Maria and Anastasia. The sisters made a collective name from their letters - OTMA, taking the capital letters of their names, and signed letters and invitations in this way. Tsarevich Alexei was the youngest child and the favorite of the whole family.

OTMA in profile. 1914

Empress Alexandra Feodorovna raised children according to religious traditions, the children read daily morning and evening prayers, the Gospel, among the disciplines taught was the Law of God.

Archpriest A. Vasiliev and Tsarevich Alexei

"The Emperor's Wife"

Traditionally, the wife of the sovereign could not be engaged in raising her daughters. However, Alexandra Fedorovna strictly selected teachers for her children, attended classes, formed the circle of interests of her daughters and their schedule - the girls never wasted time, almost did not appear at balls, and were not at social events for long.

Emperor Nicholas II and Empress Alexandra Feodorovna (center) and their children

Classes for children were built in a fairly strict regime. They got up at 8 o'clock, drank tea and worked until 11 o'clock. Teachers came from Petrograd. Only Gibbs and Gilliard lived in Tsarskoye Selo.

Sydney Gibbs and Grand Duchess Anastasia

Sometimes after school, before breakfast, a short walk was made. After breakfast - music and needlework classes.

Anastasia knits in the Lilac Living Room

"Classrooms of the Grand Duchesses"

In the classroom of Grand Duchesses Olga and Tatyana, the walls were covered with olive-colored matte wallpaper, the floor was covered with a sea-green beaver carpet. All furniture is made of ash. A large study table was in the middle of the room and was lit by a six-armed chandelier that could be lowered. On one of the shelves stood a bust of I.V. Gogol. The class schedule hung on the side wall. Books were stored in the cabinets, mainly of religious and patriotic content, as well as textbooks. The girls' library had many books in English. The teachers kept a journal where homework was recorded and marks were given on a five-point scale.

Classroom of Grand Duchesses Olga and Tatiana in the Alexander Palace

In the classroom of the younger princesses Maria and Anastasia, the walls are painted white. Furniture - ash. Stuffed birds, children's books by Russian and French authors were kept in the room. There were especially many books by the famous children's writer L. A. Charskaya. On the walls are religious drawings and watercolors, class schedules, a couple of children's announcements of a playful nature. Since the girls were still small, dolls with their toilets were kept in the classroom. Behind the partition - toy furniture, games.

"Classroom of Tsarevich Alexei"

On the second floor there was also a class room of Tsarevich Alexei. Its walls were painted with white mastic paint. Furniture, as elsewhere, was of simple painted ash wood. On the half-cupboards stretching along the walls were study guides, abacus, map of expansion of Russia under the Romanovs, study collection of Ural minerals and rocks, microscope. Books of educational and military content were stored in the cabinets. There were especially many books on the history of the Romanov dynasty, published for the 300th anniversary of the dynasty. In addition, they kept a collection of transparencies on the history of Russia, reproductions of artists, albums and various gifts. On the door - the schedule of lessons and the testament of Suvorov.

Classroom of Tsarevich Alexei in the Alexander Palace

"Music Room"

There was also a room in the "children's part", which was used as a teacher's room and at the same time as a music room. Girls' "own" libraries played an important role in the educational process. Now these books are stored in Moscow in the Russian state library. A special place in the royal family was occupied by the teachers of the crown prince. Of these, the Swiss Pierre Gilliard is the most famous, he was with the royal family in Yekaterinburg, where he miraculously managed to survive and in many ways, thanks to him, we know about last days royal family.

Music room

"Week schedule"

The main backbone of teachers was formed while teaching gymnasium disciplines to the royal daughters. For example, in 1908/09 academic year they were taught:

Russian language (Petrov, 9 lessons per week);
English(Gibbs, 6 lessons per week);
French(Gilliard, 8 lessons per week);
arithmetic (Sobolev, 6 lessons per week);
history and geography (Ivanov, 2 lessons per week).

Thus, there were 31 lessons per week, that is, with a five-day class schedule - 6 lessons per day. Teachers, like doctors, were usually selected on the basis of recommendations. Talking about learning foreign languages, it should be noted that the heir began to teach them rather late. On the one hand, this was associated with his constant ailments and long rehabilitation periods, and on the other hand, the royal family deliberately postponed teaching foreign languages to the heir.

Tsesarevich Alexei with Russian teacher P. Petrov. Peterhof

"Teaching an heir to foreign languages"

Nicholas II and Alexandra Feodorovna believed that Alexei should, first of all, develop a pure Russian accent. P. Gilliard gave the first French lesson to the Tsesarevich on October 2, 1912 in Spala, but the classes were interrupted due to illness. Relatively regular classes with the Tsarevich began in the second half of 1913. Vyrubova highly appreciated the pedagogical abilities of teachers of French and English: “The first teachers were the Swiss Monsieur Gilliard and the Englishman Mr. Gibbs. A better choice was hardly possible. It seemed absolutely wonderful how the boy changed under the influence of these two people, how his manners improved and how well he began to treat people.

P. Gilliard with Grand Duchesses Olga and Tatiana. Livadia. 1911

"Schedule for the day of Tsarevich Alexei"

As Tsarevich Alexei grew older, the workload gradually increased. Unlike his great-grandfather, who was raised at 6 o'clock in the morning, the Tsarevich was awakened at 8 o'clock in the morning:

He was given 45 minutes to pray and clean himself up;

from 8.45 to 9.15 morning tea was served, which he drank alone. Girls and parents drank morning tea separately;

from 9.20 to 10.50 there were two first lessons (the first lesson - 40 minutes, the second - 50 minutes) with a break of 10 minutes;

a long break with a walk lasted 1 hour 20 minutes (10.50–12.10);

then there was another 40-minute lesson (12.10–12.50);

a little more than an hour was allotted for breakfast (12.50–14.00). As a rule, the whole family gathered at the same table for breakfast for the first time, unless there were official events on that day.

After breakfast, the 10-year-old crown prince rested for an hour and a half (2–2.30 pm);

then again followed by a walk, activities and games in the fresh air (14.30–16.40). At this time, he had a chance to talk with his father, who was walking in the park, or his mother.

This was followed by the fourth lesson, which lasted 55 minutes (16.45–17.40).

For lunch, the Tsarevich was allowed 45 minutes (17.45–18.30). He dined alone or with his sisters. Parents dined much later.

After dinner, the Tsarevich prepared lessons for an hour and a half (18.30–19.00);

an obligatory part of the “working day” of the crown prince was a half-hour massage (19.00–19.30);

the massage was followed by games and a light dinner (19.30–20.30);

then the crown prince got ready for bed (20.30–21.00), prayed and went to bed (21.00–21.30).

Tsarevich Alexei with teachers: P. Gilliard, Palace Commandant V. Voeikov, S. Gibbs, P. Petrov

"Training in War"

In 1914 the First World War began. Classes lasted six days a week, 4 lessons a day. In total there were 22 lessons per week. Particular emphasis was placed on the study of languages. By the number of hours they were distributed as follows: French - 6 lessons per week; Russian language - 5 lessons per week; English - 4 lessons. Other subjects: The Law of God - 3 lessons; arithmetic - 3 lessons and geography - 2 lessons per week.

Epilogue

As we can see, the daily routine was busy, there was practically no free time even for games. Tsarevich Alexei often exclaimed: “When I am king, there will be no poor and unfortunate! I want everyone to be happy." And if it were not for the revolution of 1917, then it is worth noting with confidence that Tsarevich Alexei would have made every effort to bring these words to life.

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Saint Nicholas the Wonderworker, Archbishop of the World of Lycia, became famous as a great saint of God. You will learn everything about this revered saint from this article! Days of memory of Nicholas the Wonderworker:

December 6 (19) - the day of the righteous death;
May 9 (22) - the day of the arrival of the relics in the city of Bari;
July 29 (August 11) - the Nativity of St. Nicholas;
every weekday Thursday.

Saint Nicholas the Wonderworker: life

He was born in the city of Patara in the Lycian region (on the southern coast of Asia Minor), was the only son of pious parents Theophan and Nonna, who vowed to dedicate him to God. The fruit of long prayers to the Lord by childless parents, the infant Nicholas from the day of his birth revealed to people the light of his future glory as a great miracle worker. His mother, Nonna, was immediately healed of her illness after giving birth. The newborn baby, still in the baptismal font, stood on his feet for three hours, supported by no one, thereby giving honor to the Most Holy Trinity. Saint Nicholas in infancy began a fasting life, taking mother's milk on Wednesdays and Fridays, only once, after the evening prayers of his parents.

From childhood, Nicholas excelled in the study of the Divine Scriptures; during the day he did not leave the temple, but at night he prayed and read books, building in himself a worthy dwelling of the Holy Spirit. His uncle, Bishop Nicholas of Patara, rejoicing at his nephew's spiritual success and high piety, made him a reader, and then elevated Nicholas to the priesthood, making him his assistant and instructing him to preach to the flock. Serving the Lord, the young man burned with spirit, and with experience in matters of faith he was like an old man, which aroused the astonishment and deep respect of believers.

Constantly laboring and vigilant, being in unceasing prayer, Presbyter Nicholas showed great mercy to his flock, coming to the aid of the afflicted, and distributing all his possessions to the poor. Having learned about the bitter need and poverty of one previously rich resident of his city, Saint Nicholas saved him from a great sin. Having three adult daughters, the desperate father planned to give them to fornication to save them from hunger. The saint, grieving for the perishing sinner, at night secretly threw three sacks of gold out of the window, and thereby saved the family from falling and spiritual death. When giving alms, St. Nicholas always tried to do it secretly and hide his good deeds.

Going to worship the holy places in Jerusalem, the Bishop of Patara handed over the management of the flock to Saint Nicholas, who fulfilled his obedience with diligence and love. When the bishop returned, he, in turn, asked for a blessing to travel to the Holy Land. On the way, the saint predicted an impending storm, threatening the ship with sinking, for he saw the devil himself entering the ship. At the request of desperate travelers, he pacified the waves of the sea with his prayer. Through his prayer, one sailor-shipman, who fell from the mast and crashed to death, was made healthy.

Having reached the ancient city of Jerusalem, Saint Nicholas ascended Golgotha, gave thanks to the Savior of the human race and went around all the holy places, worshiping and praying. At night, on Mount Zion, the locked doors of the church opened of their own accord in front of the great pilgrim who had come. Having bypassed the shrines associated with the earthly ministry of the Son of God, Saint Nicholas decided to retire to the desert, but was stopped by a Divine voice, admonishing him to return to his homeland.

Returning to Lycia, the saint, striving for a silent life, joined the brotherhood of the monastery called Holy Zion. However, the Lord again announced a different path awaiting him: “Nicholas, this is not the field on which you should bear the fruit I expect; but turn and go into the world, and may My Name be glorified in you.” In a vision, the Lord gave him the Gospel in an expensive salary, and the Most Holy Mother of God - an omophorion.

Indeed, after the death of Archbishop John, he was elected Bishop of the World of Lycia, after one of the bishops of the Council, which was deciding the question of electing a new archbishop, was shown in a vision the chosen one of God, Saint Nicholas. Called to shepherd the Church of God in the rank of bishop, Saint Nicholas remained the same great ascetic, showing his flock an image of meekness, gentleness and love for people.

This was especially dear to the Lycian Church during the persecution of Christians under the emperor Diocletian (284-305). Bishop Nicholas, imprisoned along with other Christians, supported them and exhorted them to firmly endure the bonds, torture and torment. The Lord preserved him unharmed. Upon the accession of the Holy Equal-to-the-Apostles Constantine, Saint Nicholas was returned to his flock, who gladly met their mentor and intercessor.

Despite the great meekness of spirit and purity of heart, St. Nicholas was a zealous and daring warrior of the Church of Christ. Fighting with the spirits of malice, the saint went around pagan temples and temples in the city of Mira and its environs, crushing idols and turning temples to dust. In the year 325 Saint Nicholas was a participant in the First Ecumenical Council, which adopted the Nicene Creed, and fought with Saints Sylvester, the Pope of Rome, Alexander of Alexandria, Spyridon of Trimyphuntus and others from 318 Holy Fathers of the Council against the heretic Arius.

In the heat of denunciation, St. Nicholas, burning with zeal for the Lord, even killed the false teacher, for which he was deprived of his hierarchal omophorion and put under guard. However, it was revealed to several holy fathers in a vision that the Lord Himself and the Mother of God consecrated the saint as a bishop, giving him the Gospel and the omophorion. The Fathers of the Council, realizing that the boldness of a saint is pleasing to God, glorified the Lord, and restored His holy saint to the rank of saint. Returning to his diocese, the saint brought peace and blessing to it, sowing the word of Truth, nipping unthinking and vain sophistication at the very root, denouncing inveterate heretics and healing the fallen and those who deviated out of ignorance. He was truly the light of the world and the salt of the earth, for his life was light and his word was diluted with the salt of wisdom.

Even during his lifetime, the saint performed many miracles. Of these, the saint was best known for deliverance from the death of three men who had been unjustly condemned by the greedy mayor. The saint boldly approached the executioner and held his sword, already raised above the heads of the condemned. The mayor, convicted by St. Nicholas of untruth, repented and asked him for forgiveness. At the same time, three military leaders sent by Emperor Constantine to Phrygia were present. They did not yet suspect that they would soon also have to seek intercession from St. Nicholas, since they were undeservedly slandered before the emperor and doomed to.

Appearing in a dream to Saint Constantine Equal-to-the-Apostles, Saint Nicholas urged him to release the unjustly condemned military leaders, who, being in prison, prayerfully called for the help of the saint. He performed many other miracles as he labored in his ministry for many years. Through the prayers of the saint, the city of Mira was saved from a severe famine. Appearing in a dream to an Italian merchant and leaving him as a pledge three gold coins, which he found in his hand, waking up the next morning, asked him to sail to the Worlds and sell life there. More than once the saint saved those drowning in the sea, led them out of captivity and imprisonment in dungeons.

Having reached a ripe old age, Saint Nicholas peacefully departed to the Lord († 345-351). His honest relics were kept incorruptible in the local cathedral church and exuded a healing myrrh, from which many received healings. In 1087, his relics were transferred to the Italian city of Bari, where they rest to this day (May 22 NS, May 9 SS).

The name of the great saint of God, the saint and wonderworker Nicholas, a quick helper and prayer book for all who flow to him, became famous in all parts of the earth, in many countries and peoples. In Rus', many cathedrals, monasteries and churches are dedicated to his holy name. There is, perhaps, not a single city without St. Nicholas Church.

In the name of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker, he was baptized by the holy Patriarch Photius in 866 the Kyiv prince Askold, the first Russian Christian prince († 882). Above the grave of Askold, the Holy Equal-to-the-Apostles Olga (Comm. 11 July) erected the first church of St. Nicholas in Kyiv in the Russian Church. The main cathedrals were dedicated to St. Nicholas in Izborsk, Ostrov, Mozhaisk, Zaraysk. In Novgorod the Great, one of the main temples of the city is the Nikolo-Dvorishchenskaya Church (XII), which later became a cathedral.

There are glorified and revered St. Nicholas churches and monasteries in Kyiv, Smolensk, Pskov, Toropets, Galich, Arkhangelsk, Veliky Ustyug, Tobolsk. Moscow was famous for several dozen churches dedicated to the saint, three Nikolsky monasteries were located in the Moscow diocese: Nikolo-Greek (Old) - in Kitay-gorod, Nikolo-Perervinsky and Nikolo-Ugreshsky. One of the main towers of the Moscow Kremlin is called Nikolskaya.

Most often, churches were erected to the saint on market squares by Russian merchants, sailors and explorers, who revered the wonderworker Nicholas as the patron of all wanderers on land and at sea. Sometimes they received the name "Nikola Wet" among the people. Many rural churches in Rus' are dedicated to the miracle worker Nicholas, a merciful intercessor before the Lord about all people in their labors, sacredly revered by the peasants. And St. Nicholas does not leave the Russian land with his intercession. Ancient Kyiv keeps the memory of the miracle of salvation by the saint of a drowned baby. The great miracle worker, having heard the mournful prayers of the parents who had lost their only heir, took the baby out of the water at night, revived him and placed him on the choirs of the church of St. Sophia in front of his miraculous icon. Here, in the morning, the saved baby was found by happy parents, who glorified St. Nicholas the Wonderworker with many people.

Many miraculous icons of St. Nicholas appeared in Russia and came from other countries. This is an ancient Byzantine half-length image of the saint (XII), brought to Moscow from Novgorod, and a huge icon painted in the 13th century by a Novgorod master.

Two images of the miracle worker are especially common in the Russian Church: St. Nicholas of Zaraisk - full-length, with a blessing right hand and the Gospel (this image was brought to Ryazan in 1225 by the Byzantine princess Eupraxia, who became the wife of the Ryazan prince Theodore and died in 1237 with her husband and baby - son during the invasion of Batu), and St. Nicholas of Mozhaisk - also full-length, with a sword in his right hand and a city in his left - in memory of the miraculous salvation, through the prayers of the saint, the city of Mozhaisk from enemy attacks. It is impossible to list all the blessed icons of St. Nicholas. Every Russian city, every temple is blessed with such an icon through the prayers of the saint.

Icons, frescoes and mosaics with the image of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker

Sacred Tradition, of which ecclesiastical art is also a part, accurately preserved the portrait features of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker over the centuries. His appearance on the icons has always been distinguished by a pronounced individuality, therefore, even a person who is not experienced in the field of iconography can easily recognize the image of this saint.

Local veneration of the Archbishop of Myra of Lycian Nicholas began shortly after his death, and veneration throughout the entire Christian world took shape during the 4th-7th centuries. However, due to iconoclastic persecution, the iconography of the saint takes shape quite late, only in the 10th-11th centuries. The oldest image of the saint in monumental painting is in the Roman church of Santa Maria Antiqua.

St. Nicholas with life. 1st half of the 13th century Monastery of St. Catherine, Sinai

Icon from the Holy Spirit Monastery. Middle of the 13th century Novgorod. Russian Museum, St. Petersburg.

Nikola. 1st half of the 14th century Rostov. GTG, Moscow

The icon, invested in 1327 by the Serbian king Stefan III (Urosh) in the Basilica of St. Nicholas. Bari, Italy

Painting on the Nikolskaya Tower of the Moscow Kremlin. End of the XV - beginning of the XVI century.

Nikola Zaraisky with life marks. 1st half of the 16th century Vologda. Vologda Regional Museum of Local Lore

Nicholas Mozhaisky. Shroud. 2nd half of the 16th century Russian Museum, St. Petersburg.

Nikola Dvorishchsky with St. Savva and Barbara. Con. XVII century. Moscow. State Historical Museum, Moscow