Source study: Theory. Story. Method. Sources of Russian history. Source study Danilevsky Kabanov Medushevskaya source study theory history method

1. Quantitative growth historical sources.......... 324
2. Simplification of the content of a single document.......... 327
3. Increasing the number of varieties of historical sources......... 328
4. Publication and replication of historical sources.......... 329

1. Historiography........... 337
2. Law: attempts to define the concept.......... 341
3. Changing the relationship between custom and law as sources of law.......... 343
4. Difference between public and private law.......... 350
5. Statement of the principle “ignorance of the law does not exempt from responsibility” .......... 351
6. The formation of a system for publishing legislative acts.......... 353
7. Ensuring the effectiveness of legislation.......... 366
8. The problem of codification of legislation.......... 372
9. Classification of legislative acts.......... 376

1. Private acts.......... 385
2. Acts related to the implementation of peasant reform (statutory charters and redemption acts) .......... 388
3. New types of acts at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries - acts of joint-stock entrepreneurship.......... 390
4. Problems of source research of acts.......... 391

1. Legislative basis for office work.......... 393
2. Types of office materials.......... 395
3. Evolution of the form of records management sources. The influence of form on content......... 397
4. Special office management systems.......... 398
5. Reference publications.......... 399
6. Problems of source research of office documentation.......... 407

1. Population accounting for fiscal purposes.......... 409
2. Church and administrative-police registration of the population.......... 413
3. Accounting for officials.......... 414
4. Economic accounting in privately owned farms.......... 421
5. Accounting industrial production.......... 425

1. Organization of statistics......... 429
2. Demographic statistics.......... 431
3. Agricultural statistics.......... 433
4. Industrial production statistics.......... 438
5. Labor statistics......... 445
6. Zemstvo statistics......... 445

1. Author's journalistic works.......... 450
2. Journalism of mass popular movements.......... 450
3. Projects of state reforms and constitutions.......... 451

1. Censorship......... 454
2. Newspapers as a type of periodical press.......... 457
3. Features of the study of periodicals.......... 465

1. Definition......... 466
2. Classification......... 466
3. Evolution.......... 468
4. Historiography.......... 469
5. Memoirs - “ modern stories» .......... 472
6. Memoirs-autobiographies.......... 475
7. Essays.......... 485
8. Confession.......... 486

1. The problem of the transition from new times to modern times.......... 488
2. Changes in the main types of historical sources.......... 489
3. Changes in the typology of the corpus of historical sources.......... 490

Danilevsky, Igor Nikolaevich. Source study: Theory. Story. Method. Sources Ros. history: Textbook. manual for university students / I.N. Danilevsky, V.V. Kabanov, O.M. Medushevskaya, M.F. Rumyantseva; Ross. state humanitarian University, Institute "Open Island". M.: RSUH, 2000. - 701 p.; 22cm.

Source study: Theory. Story. Method. Sources Russian history: Textbook. allowance / I.N. Danilevsky, V.V. Kabanov, O.M. Medushevskaya, M.F. Rumyantseva. - M.: Russian. state humanist univ., 1998. - 702 p.
ISBN 5-7281-0090-2

The textbook meets the new status of source studies in the modern epistemological situation, characterized by the strengthening of polymethodology, the desire to humanitarize historical knowledge, and the strengthening of integration processes. The concept of the book is based on a theoretical understanding of the fact that a historical source (a product of culture, an objectified result of human activity) acts as a single object of various humanities with the diversity of their subject.

Considerable attention is paid to methodological problems: the source study criterion of comparative historical research is substantiated, the interdisciplinary connections of source study are revealed. Source study is considered as an integrating discipline in the system of humanities; various methodological approaches to solving the most significant problems are shown, as well as the development of methods for studying the main types of historical sources.

The overview of the main types of sources of Russian history, given in the 2nd part of the textbook, is universal in nature, since it reflects trends common to the source base of history different countries.

Part I. THEORY, HISTORY AND METHOD OF SOURCE STUDIES

Section 2. FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOURCE STUDIES (O.M. Medushevskaya)
(p1s2.pdf - 775K)

research problem

Section 3. SOURCE STUDY METHOD AND INTERDISCIPLINARY ASPECTS (O.M. Medushevskaya)
(p1s3.pdf - 483K)

Part 2. SOURCES OF RUSSIAN HISTORY

Section 1. HISTORICAL SOURCES OF THE 11th-17th CENTURIES (I.N. Danilevsky)

Section 2. HISTORICAL SOURCES OF THE 18TH - EARLY 20TH CENTURIES (M.F. Rumyantseva)

Source study

Introduction

What is source study

Source study (German Quellenkunde, English source study) is a humanitarian discipline, an object which are historical sources, i.e. the entire totality of human works / cultural products - the empirical reality of the historical world, and item– the study of a historical source as a cultural phenomenon and, on this basis, the search, extraction, evaluation and use in science and other social practices of information about man and society in their historical component.

Source study grew out of the practical need to establish the authenticity and reliability of documents. Scientific historical source study has gone through a difficult path of formation and development as a discipline of historical science. At each stage of this path, the functions of source study grew, its tasks became more complex and, most importantly, the status and place of source study in the system of scientific historical knowledge changed.

During the 20th century. source study acquires the status scientific discipline. The current state of source study is determined by the transformation of modern science, which was distinguished by strict disciplinary divisions, into a new type of knowledge, mainly of a humanitarian and synthetic nature. In the new sociocultural and theoretical-cognitive situation, which developed mainly in the last third of the 20th century - the beginning of the 21st century, source study acts as an integrating principle of humanities, since its subject is a historical source, understood as a cultural phenomenon, as a product of creativity of man and society in a broad sense , – acts simultaneously as an object of research in other humanities and social sciences. Modern source study is fundamentally multidisciplinary; it addresses the entire set of cultural works with the goal of understanding the Other (person, society, culture), expanding on this basis the experience of one’s own culture, and enriching the worldview.

Acting as an integrating principle of humanitarian knowledge, providing a universal method of addressing human works / cultural products for any humanities and social sciences, source studies at the same time maintains connections with auxiliary historical disciplines, the formation and development of which was determined by the need for a special study of certain aspects of historical sources ( for example, paleography studies the external signs of written monuments, historical chronology - the dating they contain, metrology - the measures mentioned) or special groups of historical sources (sphragistics studies seals, heraldry - coats of arms, faleristics - insignia, awards, vexillology - banners) in order to establish authenticity, dating, determination of authorship of historical sources.

Why does a person need source study?

Logically, we should start with the answer to this question. Because the question “Why?” very significant both in science and in life. A timely response to it can often save a lot of effort and time. But we couldn’t talk about why study, before at least preliminary finding out what to study.

Based on simple everyday thoughts and their own scientific and life experience, the authors advise you, before starting to study the discipline, if not to answer the question “Why do I need this?”, then at least find out why it might be useful to you.

However, there is some deceit in this formulation of the question, since the answer to this question presupposes positioning oneself in relation to various communities. A person, due to his social nature, always, willy-nilly (consciously or unconsciously), relates himself to some kind of society. Therefore, we transform the posed question as follows: “How will society demand source knowledge?”

Let us highlight two components of interest in source study – universal human/general cultural and scientific/professional. Each of them, in turn, can be divided into two levels.

General cultural component. At the first level of mastering source study, a useful skill is developed to evaluate information, including in everyday situations, in order to make adequate decisions. But the second level is much more important - developing the ability to understand a person of another culture, the Other - in a broad, philosophical sense, turning to the things created by this Other - the products of his creativity, works of another culture, acting in the system of historical knowledge as historical sources. Thus, the source study approach can and should become the basis for a tolerant attitude towards the Other, which is an indispensable requirement of modern ethics.

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Source study of the history of the Russian pre-revolutionary drama theater: Textbook. allowance. L., 1971. 199 p. Petrovskaya I.F. Source study of the history of Russian musical culture of the 18th - early 20th centuries. 2nd ed., add. M., 1989. 318 p. 680 Reference books on the history of pre-revolutionary Russia: Bibliography. decree. / Ed. P. A. Zayonchkovsky. 2nd ed. M., 1978. 638 p. To Chapter 3. Mass sources Litvak B.G. Essays on source studies of mass documentation: XIX – early XX centuries. M., 1979.294p. Yatsunsky V.K. On the application of the statistical method in historical science // Research on domestic source studies: Collection of articles. Art. M.; L., 1964. S. 26-36. (Tr. LOII; Issue 7.) To chapter 4. Legislation Military regulations of Peter I. M., 1946. Peasant reform in Russia 1861: Collection of legislative acts: Textbook. allowance / Comp. K.A. Sofronenko. M., 1954, 500 p. Complete collection of laws Russian Empire . Collection 1. St. Petersburg, 1830. T. 1-45.; Collection 2. St. Petersburg, 1830-1884. T. 1-5B.; Collection 3. St. Petersburg, 1885-1916. T, 1-33. Russian legislation of the 10th-20th centuries: In 9 vols. M., 1986-1994. T. 4-9. EkatheinaII. Order of the Commission on the creation of a New Code. St. Petersburg, 1907. Speransky M.M. Projects and notes / Prepared. for publication A.I. Kopanev and M.V. Kukushkin; Ed. S.N. Valka. M.; L., 1961. 244 p.: ill. Vernadsky G.V. Essay on the history of law of the Russian state in the 18th-19th centuries. (Empire period). Prague, 1924.166 p. Vladimirsky-Budanov M.F. Review of the history of Russian law. Pg: Kyiv, 1915. See also edition: Rostov n/D, 1995. 639 p. Kochakva B.M. Russian legislative document XIX - early. XX centuries // Auxiliary historical. disciplines. M.: Leningrad, 1937. pp. 319-371. Latham V.N. Textbook on the history of Russian law during the imperial period (XVIII-XIX centuries). St. Petersburg, 1909. X, 644 p. Development of Russian law in the second half of the 17th-18th centuries. / Rep. ed. E.A. Creepy. M., 1992. 309 p. Development of Russian law in the first half of the 19th century / Rep. ed. E.A. Skripilev. M., 1994. 315 p. Rybakov Yu.Ya. Codes of laws of the Russian Empire in the first half of the 19th century. (Towards a source study) // Problems of source study of the history of the USSR and special historical disciplines: Art. and materials. M., 1984. pp. 61-68. Rybakov Yu.Ya. Industrial legislation of Russia in the first half of the 19th century: (Source studies) / Rep. ed. B.G. Litvak. M., 1986. 214 p. To Chapter 6. Office materials Monuments of Moscow business writing of the 18th century. M., 1981. 318 p. Decembrist uprising: Documents and materials. M.; L., 1925-1984. T. I-XVIII. The case of the Petrashevites / Prepared by. for publication V.R. Leikina; General ed. V.A. Desnitsky. M.;L„ 1937-1951. T. I-III. Chernyshevsky case / Prepared by. I.V. Gunpowder; General ed. N.M. Chernyshevsky. Saratov, 1968, 679 pp.: ill. The State Duma. Verbatim reports. St. Petersburg, 1906-1917. Journals of the Special Meeting on State Defense. 1915, M., 1975; 1916 M., 1977. Issue. I-IV; 1917 M., 1978-1979. Vol. I-V. Ilyushenko M.P. History of office work in the USSR: Textbook. allowance M., 1974.169 p. PUBLICATIONS OF HISTORICAL SOURCES AND LITERATURE 681 Litvak B.G. On the patterns of evolution of office documentation in the 18th-19th centuries: (Towards the formulation of the question) // Problems of source study of the history of the USSR and special historical disciplines. M., 1984. P. 48-55. Shepelev L.E. Study of office documents of the 19th - early 20th centuries. // Auxiliary historical disciplines. L., 1968. Vol. I. S. 119-138. To Chapter 7. Materials of fiscal, administrative and economic accounting Kabuzan V.M. Revision materials as a source on the history of the population of Russia in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. (1718-1858) // History of the USSR. 1959. No. 5. P. 128-140. Kabuzan V.M. On the reliability of accounting of the population of Russia (1858-1917) // Source - study of national history: Coll. Art. for 1981 M., 1982; Litvak B.G. Essays on source studies of mass documentation: XIX - early XX centuries. M., 1979. 294 p. To Chapter 8. Statistics Arsenvv K.I. Statistical essays on Russia. St. Petersburg, 1848, 10, 503 pp.: ill. Valetsky S.N. Reference book on zemstvo statistics. Zemstvo survey programs. M., 1899. T. 1-2. Military horse census of 1912. St. Petersburg, 1913. 1891-1914. Military statistical review of the Russian Empire, published under the first branch of the Department of the General Staff. St. Petersburg, 1848-1853. T. 1-17. Zyablovsky E. Statistical descriptions of the Russian Empire and its current state. 2nd ed. St. Petersburg, 1815 Parts 1-5. Horse census of 1882. St. Petersburg, 1884. 4, XLV, 176, 187 p. Brief background information about some Russian farms. St. Petersburg, 1897-1898. Vol. 1-3. Materials on statistics of land ownership in Russia. St. Petersburg, 1896-1917. Vol. 1-25. Description of individual Russian farms. St. Petersburg, 1897-1898. Vol. 1-13. The first general population census of the Russian Empire in 1897: General summary of the empire’s results of the development of data from the First All-Russian Population Census, carried out on January 28, 1897. St. Petersburg, 1906, Collection of statistical information on the Moscow province / Ed. Moscow lips Zemstvo. M., 1877-1913. Set of reports of factory inspectors for 1900-1914. St. Petersburg, 1902-1915. T. 1-15. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky P.P. Geographical-statistical dictionary of the Russian Empire. St. Petersburg, 1863-1885. T. 1-5. List of factories and factories in European Russia. St. Petersburg, 1903. 4, 839 p. List of factories and factories of the Russian Empire / Comp. edited by V.E. Vardara. St. Petersburg, 1912. 720 p. section Pat. Land ownership statistics 1905: Compilation of data on 50 provinces of European Russia. St. Petersburg, 1907. 212 p. section pag. Statistics of land ownership and populated areas of European Russia. St. Petersburg, 1880-1885. Vol. 1-8 Statistical information on factories and plants for production not subject to excise tax for 1900 / Comp. edited by V.E. Vardara. St. Petersburg, 1903. 629 p. section pag. Cost of production of the main grains: Statistical. information on materials received from the owners. St. Petersburg, 1915-1917. Vol. 1-3. 682 Factory life in the Moscow province: Report for 1882-1883. factory inspector over the activities of minors Moscow. env. I. I. Yanzhula, St. Petersburg, 1884. 258 p. section Pat.: ill. Fundukley I.I. Statistical description of the Kyiv province. St. Petersburg, 1852. Parts 1-3. Grigoriev N.V. Subject index of materials in zemstvo statistical works from the 1860s to 1917, M„ 1926-1927, Issue. 1-2. Index of Russian literature on the description of Russian privately owned farms in 1765-1902. / Comp. P. M. Bogdanov. St. Petersburg, 1904. 124 p. Vorontsova S.V. Mass sources on the history of Russian industry at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. M„ 1995.102 p. Vorontsova S.V. Industrial statistics in Russia in the last decades of the 19th - early 20th centuries: (On the problem of the evolution of statistical sources) // Problems of source study of the history of the USSR and special historical disciplines: Art. and mother / Editorial Board: I.D. Kovalchenko et al. M., 1984. P. 95-104. Gozulov A.I. Essays on the history of domestic statistics. M., 1972. Kabuzan V.M. On the reliability of accounting of the population of Russia (1858-1917) // Source - study of national history: Coll. Art. for 1981. M., 1982. Litvak B.G. Population census of 1897 on the peasantry of Russia (source study aspect) // History of the USSR. 1990. M 1. S, 114-126. Litvak K.B. On the limits of information content of community-based reports of zemstvo censuses in the study of types of peasant farms // Mathematical methods and computers in historical research: Sat. Art. / Rep. ed. I.D. Kovalchenko. M., 1985. Mass sources on the socio-economic history of Russia during the period of capitalism / Rep. ed. I.D. Kovalchenko. M., 1979. 415 p. Mironov B.N. On the issue of using hidden historical information: (Based on materials from statistical sources of the 18th - early 20th centuries) // Auxiliary historical disciplines. L., 1985, Issue. XVII. S, 17-35. Ostrovsky MM. Zemstvo statistics of landowners' economy as a historical source // Auxiliary historical disciplines. L., 1978. Issue. X. S. 285-295. Rybakov Yu.Ya. Industrial statistics of Russia in the 19th century: Source research. M., 1976. 276 p. Ryabushkin T.V. and others. Development of statistical science in the USSR: Questions of methodology. M., 1985. 336 p. Svavitsky N.A. Zemsky house-to-house census: Review of methodology, M., 1961. 355 p. Tarasyuk D.A. Land ownership of post-reform Russia: Source study based on the census of 1877-1878. M., 1981.129 p. To Chapter 9. Journalism Karamzin N.M. About the ancient and new Russia in its political and civil relations // Lit. studies. M., 1988. No. 10. Pestikov I. T. “The Book of Poverty and Wealth” and other works / Ed., afterword. and comment. B.B. Kafengauza. M., 1951. 410 pp.: ill. Radishchev A.N. Travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow; Liberty: Ode / Ed. prepared V.A. Zapadov. St. Petersburg, 1992. 671 p. 1 l. portrait (Lit. monuments). Feofan Prokopovich. Works / Ed. and with a preface. I.P. Eremina. M.; L., 1961. 502 pp.: ill. Shcherbatov MM. About the damage to morals in Russia. St. Petersburg, 1906. 84 p. Engelhardt A.N. From the village: 12 letters 1872-1887 / Intro. Art. P.V. Volobueva, V.P. Danilova. M., 1987. 639 pp.: portrait. PUBLICATIONS OF HISTORICAL SOURCES AND LITERATURE 683 To Chapter 10. Periodical press “Bell” - newspaper of A. I. Herzen and N. P. Ogarev. Free Russian printing house, 1857-1867. London-Geneva / Intro. Art. E. Rudnitskaya. Fax machine. ed. M, 1962-1964. Vol. 1-11. “Polar Star” - A.I. magazine Herzen and N.P. Ogareva: In 8 books. 1865-1869. Free Rus, printing house. London - Genena. Fax machine. ed. M.: Nauka, 1966-1968. Book 1-9, Lisovsky N.M. Bibliography of Russian periodicals 1703-1900: (Material, for history, Russian, journalism): In 2 volumes. Reprint. ed., Moscow, 1995. T. 1-2.1995 p.: ill. Russian periodicals (1702-1894): Directory / Ed. A.T. Dementyeva et al. M., 1959. 835 pp.: ill. Cherepanov M.S., Fingerey E.M. Russian periodicals (1895 - Oct. 1917): Directory. M., 1957. 351 p.: ill. Union catalog of Russian illegal and prohibited press of the 19th century; (Book and periodicals). M„ 1971. Part 1-9. Union catalog of Russian illegal and prohibited press of the 19th century: Leaflets. M., 1977. Parts 1-3. Dmitriev S.S. Source study of Russian historical journalism: (Statement of the topic and problems) // Source study of Russian history: Coll. Art. for 1975. M., 1976. Esin B.I. Journey to the past: (Newspaper world of the 19th century) M., 1982. 160 p. Esin B.I. Russian newspaper and newspaper business in Russia: Objectives and theoretical and methodological principles of study. M., 1981, 132 p. Esin B.I. Russian pre-revolutionary newspaper: 1702-1917: Brief essay. M., 1971. 88 p. Esin B.I. Russian journalism of the 70-80s of the 19th century. M., 1963. Lurie F.M. Keepers of the past: Magazine "Byloe": history, editors, publishers. L., 1990. 255 pp.: ill. To Chapter 11. Sources of personal origin Bolotov A. T. The life and adventures of Andrei Bolotov, described by himself for his descendants. St. Petersburg, 1871-1873. T. I-IV. Witte S.Yu. Memories / Intro. Art. A.V. Ignatieva. Tallinn, 1994, T. 1-3. Herzen A. I. Past and thoughts. [Any edition] History of pre-revolutionary Russia in diaries and memoirs: Annotation. decree, book and publ. in the journal / Scientific director, editor and input P. A. Zayonchkovsky. M., 1976-1989. T. 1-5. Mints S.S. On the peculiarities of the evolution of sources of a memoir nature: (Towards the formulation of the problem) // History of the USSR. 1979. M 6. P. 55-70. Tartakovsky A.G. 1812 and the Russian memoirist: Experience in source study. M., 1980. 312 p. Tartakovsky A.G. Russian memoirs of the 18th - first half of the 19th century: From manuscript to book. M., 1991. 280 p. Tartakovsky A.G. Russian memoirs and historical consciousness of the 19th century. M„ 1997. 357 p. Chekunova A.E. Russian memoir heritage of the second half of the 17th - 18th centuries: Experience in source analysis. M., 1995. 136 p. Chudakov A.P. Subject world of literature; (On the problem of categories of historical poetics) // Historical poetics: Results and prospects of study / Editorial team: M.B. Khrapchenko et al. M., 1986. pp. 251-191. 684 To section 3 “Historical sources of the Soviet period” To the entire section Textbooks Kabanov V.V. Source study of Soviet society. M., 1997. Chernomorsky M.N. Source study of the history of the USSR: Soviet period. Ed. 2nd, rev. and additional M., 1976. 296 p. General works: Source study of the history of Soviet society: In 4th issue. / USSR Academy of Sciences. Institute of History of the USSR. M., 1964-1982. Vol. 1-4. Source studies on the history of the Great October Revolution and the formation of the Soviet state, 1917-1920; Sat. Art. / Editorial Board: M.P. Iroshnikov (ed.) and others M.; L., 1983.100 p. Professionalism of a historian and ideological conjuncture: Problems of source studies Soviet history. M., 1994, 399 pp., Conference proceedings on Source Studies of the 20th century. Abstract. report and messages. M., 1993. Perestroika in historical science and problems of source study and special historical disciplines. Abstract. report and messages. Kyiv, 1990. Collected works and collections of works by leaders of the Soviet state Lenin V.I. Full collection cit.: In 55 volumes. M., 1960-1965. T, 1-55. Stalin I.V. Op. M., 1946-1951. T. I-XIII. Stalin I.V. Op. Stanford, 1967. T.l (XIV) - 3(XVI). Khrushchev N.S. For lasting peace and peaceful coexistence: [Sb.] M., 1958. 367 p. Khrushchev N.S. A world without weapons is a world without war. M., 1960. T. 1-2. Khrushchev N.S. On the foreign policy of the Soviet Union, 1960. M., 1961. T. 1-2. Khrushchev N.S. Construction of communism in the USSR and development Agriculture: At 8t. M., 1962-1964. T. 1-8. Brezhnev L.I. Lenin's course: Speeches and articles. M., 1974-1983. T. 1-9. Andropov Yu.V. Favorite speeches and art. M., 1983. 320 pp., 1 sheet. portrait Chernenko K.U. Favorite speeches and art. M., 1984. 670 pp., 1 sheet. portrait Chernenko K.U. Along the path of improving developed socialism. M., 1985. 431 p., 1 sheet. portrait Bibliographic indexes and reference literature Source study of the history of Soviet society: Decree. lit. M., 1987-1989. [Ch. 1-2]. Korzhikhina T.P. History of state institutions of the USSR: materials for source studies and historiography (1917-1990) / Ed. S.P. Strekopytov. M., 1992. 236 p. PUBLICATIONS OF HISTORICAL SOURCES AND LITERATURE 685 Korzhikhina T.P. Public organizations in the USSR: materials for source study and historiography / Responsible. ed. S.P. Strekopytov. M., 1992. 179 p. Collections of documents of various types Archives of the Russian Revolution: In 22 volumes / Ed. G.V. Gessen, M., Contemporary. 1991-1993. T. 1-22. White matter: Fav. prod.: In 16 books. / Comp., scientific. ed. and comment. S.V. Karpenko. M„ 1992-1993. South. 1-3, 8. Documents foreign policy USSR / Ministry of Foreign Affairs affairs of the USSR; AL. Gromyko et al. M., 1957-1992, T. 1-22. Red or white?: Drama of August-91: Facts, hypotheses, clash of opinions: Sat. / Comp. L.N. Dobrokhotov et al. M., 1992. 472 p. Past: East. almanac, M., 1990-1995. Vol. 1-18. The national question at the crossroads of opinions: the 20s: Doc. and materials / Composer, V.A. Gorny et al. M., 1992. 269 p. NEP: A view from the outside: Sat. / Comp. and ed. preface V.V. Kudryavtsev. M., 1991. 304 p. Subject to disclosure. USSR - Germany, 1939-1941: Documents and materials: Compiled by translator Yu. Felshtinsky; Preface V. Dashicheva. M., 1991. 367 pp.: ill. The hidden truth of war: 1941. Unknown documents: Sat. / Comp. P.N. Knyshevsky. M., 1992. 382 pp.: ill. Soviet Union on international conferences period of the Great Patriotic War 1941-1945: Sat. doc.: In 6 volumes / Ch. ed. commission: A.A. Gromyko (chief ed.) et al. M., 1984. T. 1-6. To Chapter 2. Features of Soviet sources Danilov V.P., Yakubovskaya S.I. Source study and the study of the history of Soviet society // Issues. stories. 1961. No. 5, Dmitriev A.V., Latynov V.V., Khlopyev A.T. Informal political communication. M„ 1997. Kabanov V.V. Rumors as a historical source//Tr. Historical and Archival Institute. M., 1996. T. 33. Problems of oral history in the USSR (abstracts of a scientific conference). Kirov, 1990, Yakubovskaya. S.I. On the issue of studying and publishing sources of the Soviet period // Problems of source study. M., 1955. T. IV. P. 46-59, To chapter 3. Legislation and legislative sources Decrees of the Soviet government / USSR Academy of Sciences. Institute of History; Institute of Marxism-Leninism under the CPSU Central Committee. M., 1957-1989. T. 1-13. Directives of the High Command of the Red Army (1917-1920): Sat. doc, /Ed. Col.: G.A. Belov et al. M., 1969. 882 p. Directives of the command of the fronts of the Red Army: In 4 vols. M., 1971-1978. T. 1-4. Constitution (Basic Law) of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics: As amended. and additional adopted at the third session of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of the ninth convocation. M„ 1975. 32 p. Constitution (Basic Law) of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Constitutions (Basic Laws) of the Union Soviet Socialist Republics. M., 1978, 573 pp.: ill. Constitution (Basic Law) Russian Federation- Russia; Adopted at the extraordinary seventh session of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR of the ninth convocation 686 April 12. 1978, as amended. and additionally introduced by the Laws of the RSFSR dated October 27. 1989, dated May 31; June 16 and December 16 1990, dated May 24 and November 1. 1991 and the Law of the Russian Federation dated April 21. 1992 M.: Supreme Council of the Russian Federation: Izvestia, 1992. 111 p. Constitution of the Russian Federation: Adopted by popular vote on December 12. 1993. M., 1993. 63 p. History of the Soviet Constitution: (In documents), 1917-1966 / Preface. and general ed. S.S. Studenikina. M., 1957.1046 p. Code of laws of the RSFSR. M., 1983-1989. T. 1-9. Collection of legislative acts of the Russian Federation, March 5, 1992 - May 21, 1993. M., 1993. 254 p. Collection of legislation of the Russian Federation; Weekly ed. M., 1994- Iroshnikov M.P. IN AND. Lenin and Soviet decrees (October 1917 - July 1918) // Auxiliary histories, disciplines. L., 1976. Issue. VII. pp. 3-28. Korzhikhina T.P. Legislative sources on the history of public organizations of the USSR (1917-1936) // Auxiliary historical. disciplines, L., 1987. Issue. XVIII. pp. 221-248. Lezov S.V. Legal concepts and the language of law in modern foreign studies. Informative and analytical review. M., 1988. Lutsky E.A. Decree on land // Lenin’s decree on land in action: Sat. Art. / Ed. count: I.I. Mints (ed.) et al. M., 1979. P. 11-47. Lutsky E.A. Draft law on land of the All-Russian Constituent Assembly (1917-1918) // Auxiliary historical. disciplines. L., 1982. Issue. XIII. pp. 90-108. Palenina S.V., Silchenko N.V. Scientific Basics typology of regulatory legal acts in the USSR. M., 1987. Felshtinsky Yu.G. To the history of our closedness: Legislative foundations of Soviet immigration and emigration policy. M., 1990. 184 p. Language of the law. M., 1990. To chapter 4. Program, statutory and directive documents political parties And public organizations Trotsky Archive: Communist Opposition in the USSR. 1923-1927, M., 1990. T. 1-4. The Communist Party of the Soviet Union in resolutions and decisions of congresses, conferences and plenums of the Central Committee (1898-1986): In 15 volumes, 9th ed., add. and corr. M., 1983-1989. T. 1-15; 1990. Reference, vol. 223 p. The program of the “Union of October 17”, approved by the Moscow Central Committee. M., 1906; Program of the Socialist Revolutionary Party. M., 1917. Program of the People's Freedom Party (constitutional democratic). Poltava, 1917. Program of the Labor (People’s Socialist) Party // People’s Socialist Review. St. Petersburg, 1906. Issue. 1. Program of the Party of Revolutionary Communism. Adopted at the 4th Congress of the People's Republic of Kazakhstan. M., 1920. Programs of the main Russian parties. M., 1917 / Ed. A. Steblova and I. Sakharov; Sat. political programs parties of Russia: Democratic parties / Ed. I.V. Vladislavsky. M., 1917. Issue 1; Programs of Russian political parties. Full text of the programs of the parties Social-Democratic, Social-Revolutionary. People's Socialists, Trudoviks, Cadets. with introductory notes by S.G. Mikhailova. Pg, 1917; and others. PUBLICATIONS OF HISTORICAL SOURCES AND LITERATURE 687 Minutes of the First All-Russian Congress of the Anarchist-Communist Party. December 25-28, 1918 B.m., 1919. Protocols of the 1st Congress of the AKP. St. Petersburg, 1906. Protocols of the Central Committee of the Constitutional Democratic Party (6 volumes). T. 1. 1905-1911. M„ 1994. (Other volumes in progress); Mensheviks in 1917, (In 3 vols.). T. 1. From January to the July events. M., 1994; T. 2. From the July events to the Kornilov rebellion. M., 1996; (The third volume is in production). Programs of political parties in Russia. Late XIX - early XX centuries. M„ 1995 Amateur organizations of the USSR. M., 1989 /directory published by the information center of the MSF/; Directory of periodical samizdat (review of independent press); M., 1989-1990; Informal Russia; On informal politicized movements and groups in the RSFSR (Reference book experience). M., 1990, Kopotilova E.Yu. Charters of volunteer cultural and educational societies of Leningrad in the first half of the 20s. // Auxiliary stories, disciplines. L„ 1987. Issue. XVIII. pp. 248-256. To Chapter 5. Acts of Kabanov V.V. Documentation of a village meeting in the first years of Soviet power (1917-1920). // Archaeographer, yearbook for 1985. M., 1986. Kashtanov S.M. Acts of modern times // Source study of the 20th century. M., 1993. To chapter b, Office materials of state institutions and public organizations The First Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR, May 25 - June 9, 1989 Shorthand. report, M„ 1989. T. 1-5. Second Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR, December 12-24. 1989 Transcript. report. M., 1990. T. 1-6. Extraordinary Third Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR. Verbatim report: In 3 volumes. M., 1990. T. 1-3. Fourth Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR, December 17-27. 1990 Transcript. report. M., 1991. T. 1-4. Russian Federation. Federal Assembly. State Duma, Transcript of meetings. Spring session. M., 1994-1995. T. 1-10. Russian Federation. Federal Assembly. Council of the Federation. Meeting (2-21; 1994-1995), [Second - twenty-first] meeting of the Federation Council of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation: Transcript. report. M., 1994-1995. [Vol. 1-20]. RKP(b). Congress (7; 1918; Petrograd), Verbatim. report. M„ 1962. ХLI, 401 pp.: ill. RKP(b). Congress (8; 1919; Moscow). Verbatim report. M., 1919. RKP(b). Congress (9; 1920; Moscow), Verbatim. report. M., 1920. VII, 412 p. RKP(b). Congress (10; 1921; Moscow), Verbatim. report, M., 1963. 915 pp.: ill. RKP(b). Congress (11; 1922; Moscow). Verbatim report. M., 1961. ХХП, 873 p.; ill. RKP(b). Congress (12; 1923; Moscow). Verbatim report. M., 1968. XXII, 903 pp.: ill. RKP(b). Congress (13; 1924; Moscow). Verbatim report. M., 1963. XXIV, 883 p. CPSU(b). Congress (14; 1925; Moscow). Verbatim report. M.; L., 1926. VIII, 1029 p. ShSP(b). Congress (15; 1927; Moscow). Verbatim report. M., 1961-1962. Part 1-2. CPSU(b). Congress (16; 1930; Moscow). Verbatim report. M.; L., 1.930. VIII, 782 pp.: ill. CPSU(b). Congress (17; 1934; Moscow). Verbatim report. M., 1934. VI, 716 p. 688 VKP(b). Congress (18; 1939; Moscow). Verbatim report. M., 1939. 742 p. CPSU. Congress (20; 1956; Moscow). Verbatim report. M., 1956. T, 1-2. CPSU. Congress (21; 1959; Moscow). Verbatim report. M., 1959. T. 1-2. CPSU. Congress (22; 1961; Moscow). Verbatim report. M., 1962. T. 1-3. CPSU. Congress (28; 1966; Moscow). Verbatim report. M., 1966. T. 1-2. CPSU. Congress (24; 1971; Moscow). Verbatim report. M., 1971. T. 1-2. CPSU. Congress (26; 1976; Moscow). Verbatim report. M., 1976. T. 1-3. CPSU. Congress (26; 1981; Moscow). Verbatim report. M., 1981. T. 1-3. CPSU. Congress (27; 1986; Moscow). Verbatim report. M., 1986. T. 1-3. CPSU. Congress (28; 1990; Moscow). Verbatim report: In 7 volumes. M., 1991. T. 1-2. XIX All-Union Conference of the CPSU, June 28 - July 1, 1988. Transcript. report: In 2 vol. M., 1988. T. 1-2. XIX Congress of Trade Unions of the USSR, October 23-27. 1990 Transcript. report. M., 1991. 573 p. 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Minutes of plenary meetings of the Central Committee of the RCP (b): March 25, April 13, May 4, June 7, 10, 11, 15, 1919 // News of the CPSU Central Committee. 1989. No. 12. P. 133-174. Protocols of the Presidium of the Supreme Council National economy: Sat. doc. M., 1991-199S. [Ch. 1-2]. Minutes of the Presidium of the State Planning Committee of the USSR, 1923: Sat. doc.: In 2 hours / Editorial Board: V.P. Vorobyov (responsible editor) et al. M., 1991. Part 1. 365 p. Constituent Assembly, Russia 1918: Transcript and other documents / Comp. and ed. preface THOSE. Novitskaya, M., 1991. 161 p., Borisova L.V. Minutes of the Presidium of the Supreme Economic Council (1917-1920): Experience in source analysis // Stories, notes. 1988. T. 116. pp. 228-255. Vorobyov G.G. Document: Information analysis. M., 1973. Vylats M.A. Materials of the People's Commissariat of Finance of the USSR as a source on the history of the Soviet village // Source study of the history of Soviet society, Vol. II. M., 1968. Gonkina E.B. Protocols of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR as a historical source for studying the state activities of V.I. Lenin. M., 1982. Documents and office work: A reference guide. M., 1991. History of office work in the USSR. M., 1974. Karpenko S.V. Intelligence reports of the headquarters of the Red Army as a source on the history of internal counter-revolution and intervention (using the example of the Wrangel region) // Auxiliary histories, disciplines. L., 1989. Issue. XX. pp. 63-78. Mityaev K.P. History and organization of office work in the USSR. M., 1959. Mityaev K.P., Mityaeva E.K. Administrative documentation (paperwork) in Soviet institutions. Tashkent, 1964. Mikhailova N.M. On Istpart’s preparation for publishing the minutes of congresses and conferences communist party// Archaeography, yearbook for 1990. M., 1992. pp. 137-147. . Development of Soviet document science (1917-1981). M., 1983. PUBLICATIONS OF HISTORICAL SOURCES AND LITERATURE 689 To Chapter 7. Statistics National Economy of the USSR in the Great Patriotic War and 1941-1945: Statistical collection. M., 1990. 235 p. National economy of the USSR for 70 years: Anniversary statistical yearbook. M., 1987. 768 p. National Economy of the USSR in 1988. M., 1989. 765 p. National Economy of the USSR in 1989. M., 1990. 766 p. National Economy of the USSR in 1990. M., 1991. 750 pp., * * * Beznin M.A. Collective farm population in the Russian Non-Black Earth Region in 1950-1965. (Methodological recommendations and materials for a special seminar on the history of Soviet society). Vologda, 1990. Parts 1-2. Gasoline M.A. Peasant farming in the Russian Non-Black Earth Region. 1950-1965 M.; Vologda, 1990. Bokarev Yu.P. Budget surveys of peasant farms of the 20s as a historical source, M., 1981. Valovoy D. Economics in human dimensions, M., 1988. Veresov D. Historical demography of the USSR. Benzon (USA), 1987. The classification has been removed: Losses of the Armed Forces of the USSR and wars, hostilities and military conflicts: Statistical research / Under the general. ed. G.F. Krivosheeva. M., 1993. 416 pp.: ill. Drobizhev V.Z., Sokolov A.K., Ustinov V.A. The working class of Soviet Russia in the first year of the proletarian dictatorship: (An experience of structural analysis based on the materials of the trade union census of 1918). M., 1974. 224 p.: ill. Ezhov A.I. Organization of statistics in the USSR. M., 1968. Zhiromskaya V.B. All-Union population censuses of 1926, 1937, 1939. History of preparation and implementation // History of the USSR. 1990, No. 3. P. 84-104. Zamkov O.O. From whom and why are statistics hidden? //ECO. Novosibirsk, 1988. No. 11. Komissarov Yu.P., Slavko T.I. Workers' budgets of the 20s as a historical source (Issues of source study and processing methods) // History of the USSR. 1987. No. 2. P. 108-120. Kondratyev N.D. Problems of economic dynamics. M., 1989. Kondratyev N.D. Main problems economic statistics and speakers. M., 1991. Mass sources on the history of the Soviet working class during the period of developed socialism. M., 1982. Mass sources on the socio-economic history of Soviet society / Rep. ed. I.D. Kovalchenko. M., 1979. 374 p. Ploshko B.G., Eliseeva I.I. History of statistics: Textbook. allowance. M., 1990. Polyakov Yu.A., Zhiromskaya V.B., Kusilev I.N. Half a century of silence (All-Union Population Census of 1937) // Sociol. research. 1990. No. 7. Polyakov Yu.L. Soviet country after graduation civil war: territory and population. M, 1986. Problems of historical demography of the USSR. Chisinau, 1985. Svishchev M.A. Tax statistics as a source for studying the social structure of the city in the 20s. // History of the USSR. 1985. No. 6. P. 128-142. Selyunin V., Khanin G. Crafty figure // New World. 1987, No. 2. Selyunin V., Khanin G. Does statistics know everything? // New world. 1987. No. 11. Chayanov A.V. History of budget research. M., 1922. Chayanov A., Studensky G. Budgetary studies: History and methods. M., 1929. 690 To Chapter 8. Materials for planning the development of the national economy Danilov V. The phenomenon of the first five-year plans // Horizon. 1988. No. 5. Industrialization of the USSR: the first five-year plans. Conversation with B.C. Lelchuk // Pravda. 1988. 28 Oct. Kondratyev N.D. Plan and foresight // Kondratov N.D. Problems of economic dynamics. M, 1989. Kondratyev N.D. Special opinion. M., 1993. Book. 1-2. Orlov V.P. Illusions and reality economic information // IVF. 1988. No. 8. Development of forms of planning documentation in industry of the USSR. M., 1979. To Chapter 9. Journalism Afanasyev Yu.N. I must say this: Political journalism during perestroika. M.. 1991. 396 p. Belikova G., Shokhin A. Shadow economy // Ogonyok, 1988. No. 51. Bukharin N.I. Problems of theory and practice of socialism: [Sb.] M., 1989. 512 pp., 1 sheet. portrait Gross D. Economics and human dimension. M., 1988. The Great Patriotic War: Literary and artistic collection. M., 1942. Gorbachev M.S. Favorite speeches and art. M., 1987-1990. T, 1-7. Gorbachev M.S. December-91: My position. M., 1992. 224 p. Gorbachev M.S. Life and reforms. M., 1995. Book. 1-2. Gorky M. Untimely thoughts. M., 1990. There is no other way. M., 1988. Klyamkin I. Was there an alternative to the Administrative System? // Political education. 1988, no. 10; It's him. Why is it difficult to tell the truth? // New world. 1989. No. 2. Latsis O. Fracture // Znamya. 1988. No. 6. Lisichkin G. Myths and reality // Top Secret. 1990. No. 1-2. Nuikin A. Long live socialism! // Ogonyok. 1990. No. 31. Pineker B., Pilsheva L. Property and freedom // New world. 1989.No. 11. Popov G. The program that guided Stalin // Science and life. 1989. No. 7. Ryzhkov N.I. Perestroika: A History of Betrayal. M., 1992. 399 pp.: ill. Ryumin M.N. I won’t kneel: [Sat.] / Intro. Art. B.A. Starkov. M., 1992. 351 p.: ill. Sakharov A.D. Anxiety and hope. M., 1991. Salyunini V. Black holes of the economy // New world. 1989. Mi 10; Aka, Origins // New World. 1988. No. 5. The fate of the Russian intelligentsia: Materials of discussions of 1923-1925. / Rep. ed. V.L. Soskin. Novosibirsk, 1991. 219 p. Tolts M. How many of us were there then? // Ogonyok. 1987. No. 51. Trotsky L.D. On the history of the Russian revolution / Compiled by author. preface and approx. ON THE. Vasetsky. M., 1990. 447 pp., 1 sheet. portrait Trotsky L.D. Lessons from October: (With the application of critical materials of 1924) / Comp. Yu.A. Prokhvatilov; Entry Art. IN AND. Startsev. St. Petersburg, 1991. 364 pp.: portrait. Tsipko L. Origins of Stalinism // Science and life. 1988. No. 11, 12; 1989. Mil 1, 2. Shmelev G. Don’t dare to command! // October. 1988. Mb 2. Shmelev N. Advances and debts // New world. 1987. No. 6-7; It's him. From the reports of an economist // Znamya. 1989. No. 12. Yakovlev A.N. Bitter Cup: Bolshevism and the Reformation of Russia, Yaroslavl, 1994. 461 p. PUBLICATIONS OF HISTORICAL SOURCES AND LITERATURE 691 To Chapter 10. Periodicals Menshevik and Socialist Revolutionary leaflets of 1917-1918 // Otech. story. 1993. No. 1. pp. 15-173. Moscow news [for 1987 ]: Reprint. M., 1988. Newspapers of the first years of Soviet power, 1917-1922: Collection. bibliogr. catalog / GBL USSR named after. IN AND. Lenin. M., 1990. Parts 1-4. Newspapers of the USSR, 1917-1960: Bibliography. reference book / All-Union. book ward. M., 1970-1984. T. 1-5. Periodicals of the USSR, 1917-1949: Bibliography. decree: Journals, proceedings, bulletins: Summary. decree. M., 1955-1963. [T. 1-10]. Political parties, informal amateur organizations and the independent press of the USSR: (Catalog-reference book) / Prepared. D.F. Levicheva M., 1990. 307 p. Russian emigration in Europe: Union catalog of periodicals: In 2 volumes. Paris, 1981-1990. Petrov V.A. Newspaper of the labor collective as a historical source (Based on the newspaper “Kirovets”) // Auxiliary historical. disciplines. L., 1990. Issue. XXI, pp. 66-73. Romanovsky V.K. Letters from workers as a source for studying the social appearance of the working class in the 20s. // Auxiliary historical. disciplines, L., 1990. Issue. XXI. pp. 54-65. Strekopytov S.P. The magazine “Socialist Reconstruction and Science” (“SORENA”) as a source on the history of the organization of science and the system of the Supreme Economic Council - People's Commissariat of Heavy Machinery of the USSR 1931-1986. // Auxiliary historical. disciplines. L., 1991. Issue. XXII. pp. 73-87. To Chapter 11. Sources of personal origin Amalrik A.A. Notes of a dissident. M., 1991. 432 p. Andrey Dmitrievich: Memories of Sakharov. M., 1990. 367 pp.: ill. Bukovsky V. “And the wind returns...”, Letters of a Russian traveler. M., 1990. Vishnevskaya G.P. Galina: Life story. St. Petersburg, 1994. 526 pp.: ill. Memoirs of General Baron N.P. Wrangel: At 2 hours. M., 1992. Parts 1-2. Memoirs of Tolstoyan peasants, 1910-1930s / Comp. A.B. Roginsky, M., 1989. 479 pp.: ill. Memories of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin: In 10 volumes. M., 1989-1991. T, 1-8. Gippius Z.N. Petersburg diary. M., 1991. 127 p. From correspondence of A.M. Gorky: Letters of the Central Committee of the RCP(b) to V.I. Lenin (1921) // News of the CPSU Central Committee. 1991. No. b. pp. 152-156. From correspondence of A.M. Gorky (1930-1935) // News of the CPSU Central Committee. 1991. M 8. P. 151-157. Kerensky A.F. Russia at a historical turn: Memoirs. M„ 1993. Maryanov G.B. Kremlin censor. Stalin is watching a movie. M„ 1992. Makhno N.P. Memoirs / Introduction, Art. S.S. Wolf; Comment. S.S. Volka, I.A. Tsyganova. M., 1992. 334 p. Mikhailovsky G.N. Notes: From the history of the Russian foreign policy department, 1914-1920: In 2 books. M., 1993. Book. 1-2. October Revolution: Memoirs / Comp. S.A. Alekseev. M., 1991. 426 p. Sakharov L.D. Memoirs: In 2 vols. M., 1996. 692 Simonov K.M. Through the eyes of a man of my generation. Reflections on I.V. Stalin: [Sat.] / Comp. and ed. preface L. Lazarev. M., 1990. 428 p. Sorokin P.A. Long Road: Autobiography / Trans. from English, total. ed., comp., preface. and note. A.V. Lipsky. M., 1992. 304 p.: ill. Chuev F.I. One hundred and forty conversations with Molotov: From the diary of F. Chuev / Afterword. S. Kuleshova. M., 1991. 604 p.: ill. Trotsky L.D. My life: the experience of autobiography. M., 1990. Trotsky L.D. Portraits of revolutionaries. M., 1991. Khrushchev N.S. Pensioner of Union significance. M., 1991. Chernov B.M. Before the storm. M., 1993. Alekseev V.V. Letters from workers to newspapers as a source of sociological information // Methods of data selection, document analysis, experiment. M., 1985. Peasants about socialism (letters to the “Peasant Newspaper” for the 10th anniversary of Soviet power / Publication by T.P. Mironova // Soviet Archives. 1987. No. 5. Kurnosov A.A. Collection of documents of personal origin of participants of the Great Patriotic War war; System of values, trends and problems // Archaeographical Yearbook for 1990. M., 1992. pp. 3-8. Mironova T.P. Experience in using content analysis in the study of the social consciousness of the pre-collective farm peasantry // Perestroika in historical science and problems of source study and special historical disciplines: Abstracts of reports and communications. Kiev, 1990, To chapter 12. Sources of Russian emigration Arane D. Russian bibliography abroad. Review experience // Soviet bibliography. 1990. No. 1. pp. 140-148. Baskakov V.N. New bibliographies of Russian emigrant literature // Russian literature. 1990. No. 3. Zernov N. Russian writers of emigration: Bibliographic information and bibliography of their books on theology, religious philosophy, church history ria and Orthodox culture 1921-1972. 1973. Cossack V. encyclopedic Dictionary Russian literature since 1917 London, 1988. Literature of Russian abroad returns to its homeland. M., 1993. Issue. 1. Part 1-2. Materials for a bibliography of Russians scientific works abroad. Belgrade, 1932-1941. T. 1-2. Materials for the consolidated catalog of periodicals and ongoing publications of Russian foreign countries in Moscow libraries (1917-1990). M., 1991. Postnikov S.P. Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War. 1917-1921 Prague, 1938. Russian emigration: magazines and collections in Russian, 1920-1980: Consolidated index of articles. Paris, 1988. Pages of the Russian foreign press. Munich; Moscow, 1990. Index of periodicals of emigration of Russia and the USSR for 1919-1952. Munich, 1953. FosterL. Bibliography of Russian foreign literature, 1918-1968, 1971. T. 1-2. Shatav M.V. Bibliography of the liberation movement of the peoples of Russia during the Second World War. New York, 1961. Literature of Russian abroad: Anthology: In 6 volumes / Author. up Art. and scientific ed. A.L. Afanasiev. M„ 1990-1991. T. 1-2. Argunov A. Between two Bolshevisms. Paris, 1919. PUBLICATIONS OF HISTORICAL SOURCES AND LITERATURE 693 Brutskus B. The Rise and Collapse of the Soviet Planned Economy // Modern Notes, 1983. T. 51; It's him. Hunger and collectivization // Ibid. 1934. T. 52; It's him. The fate of the five-year plan // Ibid. 1932. T. 48. Memoirs of General Baron P.I. Wrangel, M., 1992. Part 1-2. Wrangel P.N. Notes; At 2 o'clock // White matter. Berlin, 1928-1929, T. V-VI. Gippius Z. Living faces: Memoirs, Tbilisi, 1991. Golovin N.N. Russian counter-revolution in 1917-1918. B.M. Parts 1-5. Book 1-10. Denikin A.M. Essays on Russian Troubles. Paris, 1921, T, 1, Issue, 1-2, Paris, 1922, T, 2; Berlin, 1924. T.3; Berlin, 1925, T, 4; Berlin, 1926. T, 6. Denikin A.I. Essays on the Russian Time of Troubles: The Collapse of Power and the Army, February-September 1917. M., 1991; It's him. Essays on Russian Troubles; The struggle of General Kornilov; August 1917 - April 1918, M, 1991. Drozdovsky M.G. Diary. Berlin, 1923. Kerensky A.F. Russia at a historical turn // Issues. stories. 1990. No. 6-8. Margulis M.S. Year of intervention. Berlin, 1923. Book. 1-3. Martov L. Lenin against communism // Sociolistic. messenger 1921. No. 10. Makhno N. Memoirs. M., 1992. Mensheviks after the October Revolution: Sat. articles and memoirs by B. Nikolaevsky, S. Volin, G. Aronson. Vermont, 1990. Milyukov P.N. Memoirs, M., 1991. Nemirovich-Danchenko G.V. In Crimea under Wrangel. Berlin, 1922, Nesterovichic-Berg M.A. In the fight against Bolshevism. Paris, 1931. Obolensky V.A. Essays on the past, Belgrade, 1981. Polovtsev L.V. Knights of the Crown of Thorns. Prague, b.g. Rakovsky G.N. In the camp of the whites, Constantinople, 1920; It's him. The end of the whites. Prague, 1921. Rodzianko A.P. Memories of the North-Western Army, Berlin, 1921. Rodzianko M.V. The collapse of the empire. Kharkov, 1990. Ustryalov N.V. Under the sign of revolution, Harbin, 1925, pp. 23-24, 45-46, Fedotov G. Litigation about Russia // Modern Notes. Paris, 1936, T, 60, Khodasevich V.F. Necropolis; Memories. M, 1991. Tsereteli I.G. Memories of February Revolution, Paris, 1963, Book. 1-2. Chernov D.M. Before the storm. M. 1993; It's him. Destruction instead of creation // Will of Russia. 1924. No. 1-2; It's him. Constructive socialism, Prague, 1925. T. 1, Shulgin V.V. 1920 Sofia, 1921. Shulgin V. Years - Days - 1920. M., 1990. Yuryevsky E. Peasants, collective farm and state // Russian Notes. 1941, T, 19; It's him. From the first five-year plan to the second // Modern Notes. Paris, 1934. T. 55; It's him. Behind the scenes of the five-year plan // Ibid. 1932. T. 49. CONTENTS INTRODUCTION................................................. .................................................5 PART I THEORY, HISTORY AND METHOD OF SOURCE STUDIES SECTION 1 THEORY OF SOURCE STUDIES (O.M. Medushevskaya) ....... 19 Chapter 1. Source studies: a special method of knowing the real world.... ........................................................ ...........................................19 1. The real world and its cognition........................................................ ..........21 2. Fixed sources of information about reality.................................. ........................................................ .......22 Chapter 2.

Tutorial. - M.: Russian State Humanities University, 1998. - 702 p. - ISBN 5-7281-0090-2. Medushevskaya O.M. Theory, history and method of source study.
Theory of source studies.
Source study: a special method of understanding the real world. (The real world and its cognition. Fixed sources of information about reality).
Source: cultural phenomenon and real object of knowledge.
Source: Anthropological Landmark of the Humanities.
Formation and development of source studies.
Criticism and interpretation as a research problem.
Source study as a problem of national history.
Source as a self-sufficient research problem.
Sources as a means of knowledge for the historian.
Positivist methods of historical research.
Overcoming the positivist methodology.
Methodological isolation of the cultural sciences.
Historical fact and historical source in the concept of the Annals.
The historical past in the mind of a historian.
Humanitarian knowledge as strictly scientific.
Source study paradigm of history methodology.
Source study in Russian reality.
Source as a cultural phenomenon.
Theoretical problems of source study.
Source problems of human sciences. (From historical source study to the methodology of humanitarian research: problems of theory. Interdisciplinary problems of source study: source, text, work, author. Source as an anthropological reference point for humanitarian knowledge).
Source study method and interdisciplinary aspects.
Source analysis and source synthesis.
Structure of source research. (Historical conditions for the origin of the source. The problem of the authorship of the source. The circumstances of the creation of the source. The author’s text, the work and its functioning in the sociocultural community. The functioning of the work in culture. Interpretation of the source. Content analysis. Source synthesis).
Classification of historical sources.
Sources in the human sciences. Danilevsky I.N. Sources of Russian history.
Historical sources of the XI-XVII centuries.
Chronicle. (Chronicles as a historical source and methods of their study. The Tale of Bygone Years and the Codes preceding it. Local chronicles of the 12th-13th centuries. Chronicles of the XIV-XV centuries. All-Russian chronicles of the late XV-XVI centuries. Chronicles and other historical works of the 17th century. Chronographs) .
Legislative sources. (Monuments of legislation as a historical source and methods of their study. Monuments of secular law. Monuments of ancient Russian canon law).
Acts. (Act material as a historical source and methods of its study. The appearance of acts in Ancient Rus'. Acts of the appanage period. Acts of the XV-XVII centuries).
Literary works. (Techniques for source analysis of works of literature. Translations literary works in ancient Rus' and their source study significance. Original ancient Russian literature).
Rumyantseva M.F. Historical sources of the 18th - early 20th centuries.
Changes in the corpus of historical sources during the transition from the Middle Ages to modern times.
General properties of historical sources of modern times. (Quantitative growth of historical sources. Simplification of the content of a single document. Increasing the number of varieties of historical sources. Publication and replication of historical sources).
Bulk sources.
Legislation. (Historiography. Law: attempts to define the concept. Changing the relationship between custom and law as sources of law. The divergence of public and private law. Affirmation of the principle “ignorance of the law does not exempt from responsibility.” The formation of a system for publishing legislative acts. Ensuring the effectiveness of legislation. The problem of codification of legislation. Classification legislative acts).
Acts. (Private legal acts. Acts related to the implementation of peasant reform (statutory charters and redemption acts). New types of acts at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries - acts of joint-stock entrepreneurship. Problems of source research of acts).
Office materials. (Legislative basis of office work. Varieties of office work materials. Evolution of the form of office work sources. The influence of form on the content. Special office work systems. Reference publications. Problems of source research of office work documentation).
Materials of fiscal, administrative and economic accounting. (Population accounting for fiscal purposes. Church and administrative-police population accounting. Official records. Economic accounting in privately owned farms. Industrial production accounting).
Statistics. (Organization of statistics. Demographic statistics. Agrarian statistics.
Industrial production statistics. Labor statistics. Zemstvo statistics).
Journalism. (Author's journalistic works. Journalism of mass popular movements. Projects of state reforms and constitutions).
Periodicals. (Censorship. Newspapers as a type of periodical press. Features of the study of periodical press).
Personal sources. (Definition and classification. Evolution. Historiography.
Memoirs are “modern stories.” Memoirs-autobiographies. Essays. Confession).
Changes in the corpus of historical sources during the transition from modern to modern times.
The problem of transition from new times to modern times. Changes in the main types of historical sources. Changes in the typology of the corpus of historical sources). Kabanov V.V. Historical sources of the Soviet period.
Typological changes in the corpus of sources in the 20th century.
Features of Soviet sources.
Legislation and legislative sources. (Methodology of source analysis. Some features of the development of legislation in the 70-80s).
Programmatic, statutory and directive documents of political parties and public organizations. (Documents of the CPSU. Documents of other political parties (period of the revolution).
Documents of political parties and amateur politicized organizations of our time.
Acts.
Applications. Documents of the village meeting (collection and publication scheme).
Office materials of government agencies and public organizations.
Statistics. ( general characteristics statistical sources. Agricultural statistics. Population statistics. Problems of using demographic and other statistics).
Materials for planning the development of the national economy.
Journalism.
Periodicals. (Official periodicals. Unofficial, free, alternative periodicals. Methodology for analyzing newspapers).
Personal sources. (Memoirs and diaries. Letters).
Sources of Russian emigration. (The first emigrant publications in their homeland. Main groups of sources. Documents of political parties and unions, public groups, creative associations, national and religious organizations).
Archival materials.
Publications of historical sources and literature.

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OPEN SOCIETY INSTITUTE BBK 63.2 I 73 I91 Reviewers: Dr. ist. Sciences A.P. Nenarokov, Doctor of Economics. Science L.V. Poletaev Dr. History Sciences A.L. Yastrebitskaya Educational literature on humanities and social disciplines for high school and secondary specialized educational institutions is prepared and published with the assistance of the Open Society Institute (Soros Foundation) within the framework of the Higher Education program. The views and approaches of the author do not necessarily coincide with the position of the program. In particularly controversial cases, an alternative point of view is reflected in the prefaces and afterwords. Editorial Board: V.I. Bakhmin L.M. Berger E.Yu. Genieva G.G. Diligensky V.D. Shadrikov © I.N. Danilevsky, 1998 © V.V. Kabanov, 1998 © O.M. Medushevskaya, 1998 © M.F. Rumyantseva, 1998 © Open Society Institute, 1998 © Russian State University for the Humanities, original layout, 1998 INTRODUCTION It is possible to obtain information about a person, society, state, about events that took place at different times and in different parts of the world, only by relying on historical sources. The works that people create in the process of conscious, purposeful activity serve them to achieve specific goals. They also carry valuable information about those people and the time when they were created. To obtain it, it is necessary to understand the peculiarities of the emergence of historical sources. However, it must not only be extracted, but also critically evaluated and correctly interpreted. When studying fragments of past reality, it is important to be able to make logical conclusions about what the very fact of their presence means, to be able to reproduce on their basis an interconnected picture of the culture, the society of which they are a remnant. This knowledge and skills are necessary not only for historians, but also for a wider range of specialists in the humanities. Human experience, everyday lifestyle, relationships between people of different generations, customs and mores, the ability to exist in natural environment, the desire to know the past of one’s city, village, region, one’s people or ethnic group, clan or that; They force people to turn to documents, archives, antique objects, and photographs. The range of problems that interest historians has also expanded significantly. The new historical science, in contrast to the traditional one, deals not only and not so much with the events of political life, but is turned to the global history of mankind. Celebrations and rituals, myths and fairy tales, raising children, crafts and trades, trade and exchange, art and beliefs, prohibitions and hobbies - everything is learned by comparison and gives rise to new thoughts and judgments. Therefore, historians actively interact in the study of these phenomena with representatives of other humanities and natural sciences - sociologists, anthropologists, ethnologists, psychologists, historians of science and art, researchers of language and literary texts. Humanities specialists study historical sources, finding in them inexhaustible resources of new information about humanity, its creative capabilities and in various ways capture your experience, express your inner world in material images. A historian, anthropologist, sociologist, psychologist, politician - each of them turns to sources with their own questions, trying to find out what the subject of the science being studied is. But they all draw their information from a common set of sources created by people. Therefore, a specialist must understand that the totality of sources constitutes a projection of culture in time, a treasury of human knowledge and world experience. He must be able to find and select those types of sources that are especially important and interesting for a given science; be able to pose questions, find answers in sources, be able to distinguish the voices of people of the past conveyed to us by historical sources, and interpret these data in accordance with the modern level of science and culture. The science that specifically develops these problems is source studies. In traditional historical science, methods of source study were usually considered in relation to the history of a particular country or era. The regional studies approach guides the researcher to review the main sources on the history of the country, which, of course, is very important and necessary. However, in the present It is now obvious that studying a particular era or a particular region or country is only possible within a broader framework, over a long historical perspective, using comparative approaches. And then it becomes obvious that the emergence of sources has its own logic, many types of sources appear (and sometimes disappear) naturally, expressing certain repeating, comparable cultural situations. Therefore, it is possible to identify general problems of source studies and develop principles and methods of working with sources. This is the focus of this textbook, which provides basic scientific guidelines for studying source study and its method. The authors show why source study is important and necessary for historical education, for scientific activity in the field of humanities, for self-education and cultural self-identification. The manual opens up approaches to historical sources, reveals the method of source study as a general humanitarian one, as special way knowledge of reality. INTRODUCTION 7 The textbook is based on a single concept. It is implemented in theoretical, methodological and concrete directions. First, the general properties of sources and the principles of their learning are considered; it is shown that these general properties and the methods of study themselves were developed within the framework of general historical research. Only in modern times they became the subject of methodological works. Based on modern ideas about sources, a method of source analysis and synthesis has been formed, which is being studied specifically. In those parts of the manual that highlight the problems of the typology of sources, their main types and methods of studying them - specific specific techniques, the authors turn to the sources for the study of Russian history, analyzing them from a historical perspective - from ancient times to modern times. This became possible because source study as a science about sources in Russia developed by the end of the 19th century. and develops throughout the 20th century. To date, a new status of source studies in the system of humanities has been determined. Its essence lies in the fact that a historical source (a product of culture, an objectified result of human activity) acts as a single object of various humanities sciences with a variety of their subjects of study. Thus, it creates a unified basis for interdisciplinary research and integration of sciences, as well as for comparative historical analysis. The change in the status and content of source studies, as well as the very nature of the modern epistemological situation, necessitate a new approach to teaching source studies. The existing textbooks were created on the basis of the methodology of positivism, and in a number of cases they are written in an ideologized spirit, which makes it difficult for a methodologically poorly prepared reader to perceive factual material that has not lost its value. They lack a systematic presentation of the theory of source studies, little attention is paid to methods of source study, and their development is not shown. In Soviet times, source studies could develop primarily in conjunction with archival studies, which partly explains its focus on the sources of Russian history. The educational literature will provide an overview of the corpus of domestic sources (M.N. Tikhomirov. Source study of the history of the USSR. M., 1962; Source study of the history of the USSR in the 19th - early 20th centuries / Edited by I.A. Fedosov. M., 1970; Source study history 8 INTRODUCTION USSR / Edited by I.D. Kovalchenko. M., 1981; Chernomorsky M.N. Source study of the history of the USSR: Soviet period. M., 1976). The literature examining sources from other countries is represented by a few textbooks and courses of lectures on source studies of modern and contemporary history (textbooks by I.V. Grigorieva, R.S. Mnukhina, course of lectures by I.Ya. Biska), which are overview or fragmentary. The exception is the fundamental work of A.D. Lyublinskaya “Source Studies of the Middle Ages” (L., 1955), the factual material of which is extensive and timeless. At the same time, due to the thematic presentation, a comparative consideration of medieval sources is difficult. In modern conditions, when interest in comparative historical research is growing, it is necessary to expand the scope of presentation and move from a regional study to a problem-specific principle of presentation of material. At the same time, a review of the sources of Russian history will retain not only applied, but also methodological significance. The typology and periodization of the evolution of the corpus of Russian historical sources, as the most systematically and holistically developed, provide the basis for a typological consideration and comparative study of the corpus of historical sources of other countries. A modern textbook should not only convey the necessary amount of knowledge, but also form the ability to work independently in this branch of science. To achieve this goal, it is necessary: firstly, clarity of the methodological position while simultaneously highlighting fundamental issues in other scientific paradigms; secondly, increased attention to the methodology and technology of source research; thirdly, as a synthesis of the first two positions - the historiographic nature of the presentation, the disclosure of the dependence of the method of studying historical sources on general scientific and historical methodology. The authors - to the best of their ability - sought to balance historical sources arising in the personal, social and state spheres; justify the source criterion for comparative historical research; reveal the interdisciplinary connections of source studies, considering source studies as an integrating discipline in the system of humanities; show various methodological approaches to solving the most significant problems; explore the development of methods for studying the main types of historical sources. INTRODUCTION 9 This approach allows us to study written sources in connection with other types of historical sources (material, pictorial, technotronic, etc.), to overcome the previously developed limitation to the range of sources that arose in the system of socio-economic and political relations. In bringing to the attention of readers textbook the experience of the scientific and pedagogical school of the Moscow Institute of History and Archives is summarized. Her theoretical basis is a holistic concept of humanitarian knowledge, developed at the beginning of the 20th century. outstanding Russian scientist A.S. Lappo-Danilevsky. What exactly distinguishes this school of source studies? Let us dwell on three fundamental points: the definition of the concept of “historical source” (subject of research), the structure of source analysis (research method), the role of the researcher’s consciousness in historical knowledge (methodology). The definition of its subject is of system-forming importance for any scientific discipline. In Soviet historical science, the dominant definition (and in many ways continues to hold its position) is that a historical source is everything from which information about the development of society can be obtained. This does not reveal the nature of the historical source, its substance, but only indicates the function (to serve in historical knowledge) of some unknown object or phenomenon. In the presented textbook, a historical source is considered as a work created by man, as a product of culture. The emphasis is on understanding the psychological and social nature of a historical source, which determines its suitability “for the study of facts with historical significance.” The indicated differences in the definition of a historical source have profound methodological basis, because, ultimately, they are caused by different understandings of the object of historical knowledge. The first definition comes from the premise of invariance of the historical past, its implementation in certain forms, which forces us to make the past an object of historical knowledge. The general method of such knowledge is more and more accurate modeling of this only possible past. We understand the historical past as reconstruction. It is based on a dialogue between the consciousness (and psyche as a whole) of the researcher and the consciousness (and psyche) of people who lived before. The dialogue begins with an understanding of the “other” (the person of the past), the objective (materialized) basis of which is the “realized product of the human psyche” - a historical source. It is he who allows, in the course of interpretation, to re-reproduce the “animity” (psyche, individuality) of its creator. Different understandings of the subject of source study lead to differences in the understanding of its method. A.S. Lappo-Danilevsky, defining a historical source as “a realized product of the human psyche, suitable for studying facts with historical significance,” sought to understand its author, a man of the past, by interpreting a historical source. Further, on this basis, historical construction is carried out, i.e., the historical fact is comprehended not only in the coexistential (coexisting), but, first of all, in the evolutionary whole. In other words, from the standpoint of modernity, it is possible to identify the value and effectiveness of a fact, its historical significance. Moreover, to understand Lappo-Danilevsky’s concept, it is important to constantly remember that he separated source study and historical construction only analytically. In the process of research, and he understood this perfectly well, these components are inseparable. In the Marxist paradigm, a historical source is considered only as a repository of facts needed by a historian to build (reconstruct) an invariant past. It is because of this that, both in science and in teaching, the source study method has often turned into a technique for obtaining “reliable” information. At the same time, the method of source research itself was lost. Recognition of the unity of the method of source research in the school of source studies Historical and Archival Institute provides a holistic understanding of source analysis and synthesis, which are considered as a system of research procedures. Not a single element of the system can be omitted without compromising the correctness of the final result. Primary attention is paid to the characteristics of the author, the circumstances of the creation of the historical source, its significance in the context of the reality that gave rise to it. And only the study of the entire complex of problems associated with the origin of the source and its functioning in the era that gave birth to it allows us to move (in an analytical, and not in a temporal sense) to the interpretation of the content, assessment of information and the source as a whole . A distinctive feature of the source study paradigm, which goes back to the legacy of Lappo-Danilevsky, is that it considers not only the relationship between the source and reality, but also the interaction of the cognizing subject and the source in an interrelated analysis of these aspects. At the Historical and Archival Institute, special attention has always been paid to distinguishing between the views of the author of a historical source, the views that have developed in historiography at different stages of its development, and the point of view of the researcher. Without this, independent historical synthesis is impossible. Moreover, the danger of unconsciously introducing the points of view and assessments established in historiography into another era, into the context of another evolutionary whole, increases sharply. A novice researcher is constantly focused on analyzing the content of his own consciousness, identifying the origin and structure of those historical ideas that he developed during the study of historiography and in the process of his own research work . Therefore, in the concept of the Historical and Archival Institute (in contrast to the dominant traditional model of education), the emphasis is on elucidating the cognitive process. At the same time, mastering factual knowledge is considered as a means of developing the ability of critical judgment. Changes in ideological ideas in post-Soviet society have led to the loss of methodological foundations. At the same time, a significant part of the humanities continue to think within the framework of a paradigm that can only be called “Marxist” due to ignorance of Marx’s concept. This led to attempts to rethink and write “objective” history without revising the actual research methodological apparatus. In such a situation, the source study component of the concept provides the basis for the desired objectivity and allows a new approach, first to source analysis, and then - under the influence of systematicity - to historical synthesis. This epistemological system provides an adequate way to solve the most pressing problems of modern humanitarian knowledge: the “principle of recognizing someone else’s animation” and the concept of Lappo-Danilevsky allows us to turn history face to face with man. Recognition of a cultural product as a common object of the humanities and social sciences (while their subjects differ) provides the basis for comparative historical and interdisciplinary research. The postmodern challenge poses many new epistemological problems, but at the same time blurs the boundaries of strictly scientific humanitarian knowledge in the minds of researchers. Under these conditions, the source study concept, the idea of a historical source as a realized product of the human psyche, a system of historical sources as a projection of spiritual life, allows humanitarian knowledge to gain ground for various interpretations. The idea of a co-existential and evolutionary whole and understanding of the ways of its construction provides a philosophical basis for a holistic perception of the historical process. The development of source studies as one of the historical sciences, the formation of its interdisciplinary connections and the differentiation of courses taught determines a new approach to the structure and content of the source studies course. In the study of the corpus of Russian historical sources, a significant role is given to the principles of comparative consideration of sources from different countries, regions, and civilizations. The purpose of the textbook is to substantiate the main positions of modern source study, especially its special method. This method allows us to study historical sources as an integral set (systematically), as a set of works created during the historical process, the activities of people who sought to solve their own problems that were important to them through them. Accordingly, this totality has a source of universal human homogeneity, interconnectedness, and typological characteristics. This method allows you to understand the typology of historical sources (based on the purposes of their creation and functions in social reality) and find common approaches to their study. These are the possibilities of source studies as an anthropologically oriented paradigm of a new historical science, covering essentially all aspects of history and the functioning of culture. Therefore, the authors talk about a general humanitarian approach to historical sources using this method. In the first part of the textbook, the source study method is shown from a general theoretical perspective, in its formation and modern form. The ways of studying the integral set of historical sources, specific source studies situations, and their differences at different stages of the development of society are shown. This part substantiates the relevance of source studies and its method in the system of humanitarian knowledge in the modern epistemological situation, which is characterized by the desire for integration of sciences and interdisciplinary interaction. In these conditions, the question of the object of humanities acquires special significance, in connection with which the concept of a historical source, the subject and tasks of source studies are considered. A historical source is interpreted as an objectified result of human activity, as a carrier of fundamentally verifiable information, as a cultural phenomenon INTRODUCTION 13, which makes it possible to reveal the system-forming significance of source study in humanitarian knowledge. In the second part of the manual, the source study method is revealed based on the sources of Russian history in its integrity and temporal duration. This choice of object fully meets the goal. Consideration of the corpus of sources of Russian history allows the reader to understand how the method of source analysis and synthesis is used when working with specific material, how specific methods are formed that take into account the characteristics of various historical sources. Studying the sources of Russian history specifically allows the authors to rely on the rich traditions and achievements of Russian source study culture and teaching source study as a special discipline. In turn, a historian-country specialist who seeks to understand the source situation of the country he is studying (culture, ethnicity, etc.) receives a fairly developed model of approach to the entire set of historical sources, he will be clearly visible situations, problems and possible solutions. The proposed approach thus brings to a new level the identification of the general and special in the source heritage, which can be studied from the comparative positions of the unity of human experience and its individual originality. The principle of periodization of the evolution of the corpus of sources adopted in the textbook also requires explanation. The initial chronological boundary is the 11th century. - the time from which the written sources of Ancient Rus' have been preserved. The species structure of their complex, characteristic of the Middle Ages, took shape, which was reflected in the first section of the second part of the textbook. At the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries. and during the 18th century. in Russia there were cardinal changes in the properties of historical sources and their species structure. At the same time, such types of sources as chronicles and hagiographic literature lost their primary importance; memoirs, fiction, scientific works, including historical ones, periodicals, and statistical sources appeared. The nature of legislation, acts and records has changed significantly. If we do not limit ourselves to the study of written sources only, it can be noted that almost simultaneously with such personal sources as memoirs, portraiture also arose in Russia. Such significant changes in the structure of the corpus of sources of Russian history were due to profound changes both in Russian society and in the mentality of an individual. Similar changes occurred around the same time in other European countries. As a hypothesis explaining the reasons for these changes, the authors accept the concept of the evolution of self-awareness of the human personality and changes in the relationship between man and society. The processes noted above are associated with the separation of a person from the social environment around him, the awareness of its historical variability, which is characteristic of the transition from the Middle Ages to modern times. The corpus of sources also changes significantly during the transition to modern times. Recording these changes makes it possible to detect in the history of individual countries the period of transition from one era to another. At this time, the unifying influence of the social environment on the human personality and the determining influence of the social group on the individual’s self-awareness are intensifying, which, apparently, is largely due to the emergence of factory production, which changed the nature of work, increasing the alienation of man from the end result of it labor activity and unified the everyday environment surrounding people. An analysis of the corpus of sources of Russian history shows that changes corresponding to the transition from modern to modern times are detected in the second half of the 19th century. and at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. There is a tendency to unify the form and content of many types of written sources - office materials, periodicals, up to such a personal source as memoirs, which partly depend on the picture of events formed by the media. In general, the proportion of sources, initially, already at the moment of their occurrence, intended for publication in one form or another has increased significantly. In addition, at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. The types of sources also began to change: photographic and film materials appeared, and later machine-readable documents, which probably indicated global changes in the history of mankind. And in this regard, perhaps, the emergence of machine-readable documents is comparable to the emergence of writing and the emergence of written sources. After all, types of sources, like species, do not appear simultaneously. And the sequence of appearance of the main types of sources: material - pictorial - written - fully corresponds to the sequence of three stages in the development of mankind: savagery - barbarism - civilization. INTRODUCTION 15 From the corpus of sources of modern times, sources of the Soviet era are highlighted. This is due, first of all, to the strong ideological influence on all spheres of public life and the suppression of the individual, which determined the specifics of historical sources. However, we note that the historical sources of the Soviet and post-Soviet times also bear the most significant features of the sources of modern and contemporary times. This showed continuity with the body of sources from the previous period of Russian history, which is explained by the traditionalism of Russian society and the typological similarity of absolutist and totalitarian states. The development of sources of modern and modern times differs significantly from the study of the corpus of Russian sources from the period of ancient and medieval Rus'. When considering the evolution of the types of sources of the Middle Ages, one can and should focus on the most notable monuments, such as “The Tale of Bygone Years”, “Russian Truth”, etc. Due to the huge quantitative growth of sources in modern and contemporary times this approach is not possible. It is necessary to build a model of the species and trace its evolution, using individual monuments as real samples. To prove these constructions, the reader can use as examples any sources known to him (memoirs, journalistic works, etc.). The study of source studies assumes that the student is already familiar with history, at least at the factual level. Therefore, the mentioned historical events, not given curriculum vitae about persons known from the general course of history, and a chronologically sequential presentation of the material is not given. Source analysis and synthesis is a system of research procedures, not a single element of which can be omitted without damaging the final result. This system, outlined in the first part of the manual, is equally applicable to all types of sources, an overview of which is given in the second part. That is why the chapters of the second part do not pay special attention to the methodology of source research, however, the source analysis of each type of historical sources has its own specifics, which are revealed as necessary in the relevant chapters. The review of historical sources does not outline the method of their source analysis, but those of its individual elements that are characteristic of a given type. The student’s task is to independently apply source analysis to each type of historical sources in full. We also note the inevitable unevenness in the presentation of the material. Those sections that are completely absent from the available educational literature are written in more detail, as well as those that contain the results of our own research activities authors, have been tested in teaching practice, but are not sufficiently represented in scientific publications or reflect approaches that are radically different from the generally accepted ones. In general, the textbook summarizes the experience accumulated in historiography in the development of certain types of historical sources. The cognitive-theoretical (epistemological) and corresponding pedagogical concept of the authors is based on the idea of a historical source as a general object of the humanities and a systemically interconnected carrier of information in the human sciences. Therefore, source study acts as one of the fundamental disciplines in the education of a specialist in the humanities, and the method of source study - source analysis and synthesis - is the research method that a professional in the humanities must master. SECTION 1 THEORY OF SOURCE STUDIES CHAPTER 1 Source studies: a special method of knowing the real world IN HUMAN activity it often happens that in the process of achieving specific goals, valuable experience is simultaneously acquired. For example, by traveling, people accumulated experience and knowledge about the Earth. From the experience of travel, practical geoscience was formed, and then the science of geography. Something similar happens when mastering the wealth of human experience - historical science, historical anthropology, human science. There are two ways to obtain information about people: direct observation, communication, and dialogue. However, this method has significant limitations: we see only what is happening here and now. In order to find out about what is happening in another place, a different way is needed - an indirect one. At the same time, we study works consciously and purposefully created by people - manuscripts, books, things. We use this same method when we ourselves create works, expressing our inner world in them, conveying a message about ourselves to people, to humanity. These works, as sources of knowledge - historical sources, have long been the subject of attention of researchers, primarily historians, because historical science specifically turns to the experience of the past. In an effort to generalize its methods of working with historical sources, the science of man forms a special field of study. Due to its basic content, it began to be called source studies. 20 SECTION 1 Source study developed as a special discipline primarily within the framework of the methodology of historical research, since it is historical science that systematically uses historical sources for the purposes of knowledge. In the course of its formation, source study generalizes the research and publishing (archaeographic) experience accumulated in the process of working with literary, artistic, philosophical, and legal works in classical philology, philosophical hermeneutics, literary criticism and linguistics, history of law and other fields of knowledge. A special group of disciplines has long been formed that have accumulated experience in working with certain types of sources - the so-called auxiliary historical disciplines (palaeography, sphragistics, diplomacy, codicology and many others). They help researchers correctly read texts, identify them, and prepare historical documents for scientific publication and use. Traditionally, source studies are associated with the research activities of a historian, and therefore sometimes they speak specifically about historical source studies, historical sources. However, in standing time It is obvious that the problems that are specifically developed by source studies are considered not only in historical science, but in a much wider interdisciplinary space humanities studies. At the same time, source study methods are important for many areas of humanities. Therefore, the study of problems of source study should begin not with the history of its formation, but with questions of theory - its theoretical-cognitive (epistemological) foundations. Source study is currently a special method of humanitarian knowledge. Humanitarian knowledge has the goal of increasing and systematizing knowledge about man (in the fullness and integrity of this phenomenon) and society (the phenomenon of humanity in its temporal and spatial unity). Methods of source study also serve common purposes. Source study improves its methods and cognitive means in accordance with the general epistemological (cognitive-theoretical) principles of humanitarian knowledge and, in turn, enriches knowledge about man and humanity with specific cognitive means. The methodology of source study is represented by a system of knowledge that initially developed primarily in historical science, as well as in other humanities. It has the unity of theoretical postulates, historical and practical experience of development and a research method. THEORY OF SOURCE STUDIES 2 1 Source studies has a specific subject and uses a special method of understanding objective reality. As is known, in objective reality there are both natural objects that arise outside of human activity and independently of it, and cultural objects created in the process of purposeful, conscious human activity. Cultural objects are created, processed, and cherished by people who pursue specific practical goals in their creation. It is these objects that carry special information about the people who created them, and about those types of public organizations, human communities, and for which these goals were set and realized. Objects created by nature without human participation are not specifically studied by source studies, since they do not have special (natural science) methods for this. To obtain additional information, it also turns to natural scientific fields of knowledge. The study of cultural objects as sources of information about man and society is the main task of source studies. 1. The real world and its cognition Thus, source study is a method of cognition of the real world. The object in this case is cultural objects created by people - works, things, records, documents. Through what properties cultural sites the real world is known? Since people create works (products, things, records, documents, etc.) purposefully, these works reflect these goals, and the ways to achieve them, and the opportunities that people had in their lives. at one time or another, under certain conditions. Therefore, by studying works, you can learn a lot about the people who created them, and humanity widely uses this method of knowledge. In the early human communities of oral culture, people in a wide variety of ways used things created by other people - tools, instruments, household or luxury items, weapons and much more - not only for their intended purpose, but also as sources of information. By examining, comparing, evaluating, and reasoning logically, people extracted important information about a culture that was new to them. Therefore, many customs associated with the dialogue of cultures are accompanied by the exchange of gifts. These customs, dating back to ancient times, make it possible to significantly supplement the social information that can be conveyed verbally, 22 SECTION 1 in direct personal communication. From them one can judge the wealth of the country, which people have already learned to use, the level of development of technology, crafts, lifestyle, system of value orientations, levels of science and culture. This method of obtaining information about the human community provides enormous opportunities, because it is focused on the main human property - the ability to create, create, objectify one’s thoughts and ideas in material images. The emergence of writing, and later technical means of recording and transmitting information, its replication, significantly expanded the information field of human civilization, qualitatively changed and is changing it. “One of the main differences is between spoken and written language. Of these, the first is purely temporal in nature, and the last connects time with space. If we listen to escaping sounds, then when reading, we usually see motionless letters in front of us, and the time of the written flow of words is reversible for us: we can read and reread, moreover, we can run ahead. The listener’s subjective anticipation turns into an objectified anticipation of the reader: he can look ahead of time at the end of a letter or novel,” wrote linguist and literary critic P.O. Jacobson 1. The object of source study is fixed speech - time associated with space. This condition is necessary and sufficient for research (and not just perception). 2. Fixed sources of information about reality How do people transmit and exchange social information? This happens primarily at the level of personal communication - with the help of words (verbal communication) and various non-verbal methods of transmitting information - facial expressions, movements, gestures (non-verbal communication). Most often, one is complemented by the other. This method of human cognition is quite informative. But it has a significant drawback - personal communication is limited in time (happens here and now) and in space. Everything else may remain unknown because it either happened a long time ago, or happened or is happening in another place. Man differs from other living beings in that he has learned to create works that express his goals and intentions, and has managed to realize that these works can become sources of information. This situation and will create the potential for a source-based approach. As a result, people accumulate everyday experience and pass it on to subsequent generations. To do this, they encode information in material objects (creating a document, record, drawing, product, work), i.e. in fixed sources of information. This point is fundamentally important for understanding the method of source control. This is a method of understanding the world around us through fixed sources of information. The ability to create works makes a person a Master, a creator, a creator; gives him the opportunity to realize himself, his power over time and space. She gives him a way of communicating with his own kind that other living beings do not have. That is why we can speak of homo sapiens as a creator and, to the extent that a person recognizes this ability in himself, as an artist and craftsman. The need for creativity - transmission in a materially fixed form (thing or record - image or designation) is a truly human feature. A person always instinctively recognizes it as vital. The impossibility of its realization destroys him as a person, and, on the contrary, any possibility of creativity serves for his self-identification. In this sense, source study is based on an essential human property and therefore is an anthropologically oriented method of understanding the real world. The use of a product, a work, a thing created by a person as a source of information about him (and about his time and his space) is initially inherent in humanity, and therefore is taken for granted. Paradoxical as it may seem, people for a long time did not ask the question of how this information is obtained and what happens in the process. Source studies studies these issues purposefully. Thus, source study is a special scientific method knowledge real world. The focus is on the cognitive space in which this way of knowing the world is realized: how exactly a person (the knowing subject) finds and studies an object (which serves him as a source of knowledge), what questions he poses, what logic he follows. Xia, seeking response information, in other words, what method does he use? Source studies examines a question that people have not thought about for a long time: what actually happens when studying information from historical sources. Constantly turning to this way of knowing the real world, social practice has accumulated a wealth of experience in communicating with works of art, literature, legal, and social information. This experience began to be generalized within the framework of the methodology of history. After all, it is historical science that experiences a special deficit in terms of direct observation of what it would like to study. Sometimes they say that historical science studies the past. This definition is very arbitrary and imprecise. Firstly, because the concept of “past” is vague. It is not so easy to draw a clear time line between “past” and “present”. Apparently, the distinction between the past and the present requires a different, non-chronological, approach. Based on the source study paradigm, we will adhere to the literal meaning of these concepts: the past is what has passed, that is, completed, and the present is what is in the process of change. The present happens here and now, it can therefore be observed, realized, emotionally perceived, etc. But it continues, and therefore, strictly speaking, it cannot be studied by scientific methods. That is why humanity has always strived to “stop the moment” and persistently invented means for this purpose - drawing, writing, printing, photography, cinema, sound recording. Of significant importance is the fundamental possibility of repeated, repeated reference to the past reality, its image fixed in the form of a material image. A necessary condition scientific study of reality is the possibility of its fixed imprinting. These fixed impressions are the main source of knowledge. Source study is a special method of studying these sources. It is quite obvious that historical science cannot do without sources, since it studies the past, including those very far from the present. Source study acts in this case as a method of studying past reality through human perception recorded in sources. Another thing is obvious: without turning to sources, knowledge of reality is generally impossible. Consequently, the source study method is necessary for humanitarian knowledge in general. THEORY OF SOURCE STUDIES 25 CHAPTER 2 Source: cultural phenomenon and the real object of knowledge SCIENCE (by definition) - reliable and systematized knowledge about reality - cannot pass over in silence the question of its object. It is assumed that it is knowable by scientific means if it exists as a phenomenon that has certain properties : accessibility to observation; stability (ensuring the possibility of repeated circulation); independence from the researcher (the research procedure does not affect these properties). Of course, any science proceeds from the general methodological premises of the relativity of knowledge, but nevertheless, in the natural sciences the reality of a thing in itself is not disputed, and the path to knowledge is paved thanks to the improvement of research methods and techniques. The cognitive situation in the human sciences is not so clear. What, in fact, can act as a real phenomenon accessible to scientific analysis? In historical science, as we know, very little is accessible to direct observation. As for the phenomena of human communication, even if they are recorded (oral history) or a targeted experiment (survey, interview, etc.), there are enormous cognitive difficulties associated with the interpretation of the data obtained and with the emerging interaction of the subject and the object (sometimes, as ethnologists note, changing places). Complex cognitive problems come to the fore when we raise the question of the human phenomenon and the future of a unified science of humanity. Humanity is a special part of the world, endowed with consciousness. In turn, it can only be studied as a whole - the evolutionary and co-existential whole of humanity. How does this approach resolve the question of the sources of knowledge of this whole? How to present a holistic set of sources of knowledge that is adequate to a given cognitive goal? The sciences about man (more precisely, about humanity) have an object that meets the conditions of scientific knowledge. This object is observable, stable and sovereign (i.e., separate from the knowing subject). This refers to an integral set of works created in the process of purposeful human activity and serving as sources of knowledge (in traditional terminology, historical sources). These works (historical sources of all types, types and 26 SECTION 1 forms of recording) are presented in material form. As objects of research, they are independent of the knowing subject, because they were created for other purposes and at another time; in their totality, they reflect the interaction of a person with nature, society, the state and with another person, realized in global human history. It is important to emphasize that works created by people of a certain era (country, environment, culture) are correlated with each other at the time of their creation and subsequent functioning. Each of them can be interpreted only taking into account these systemic connections. This situation is still insufficiently understood and little studied. Any science - history, sociology, psychology - turns to sources of social information, but it does this, as a rule, selectively, from the angle of its specific cognitive goals. The set of works considered as an integral system object, as a historical source, is the subject of source studies. For source studies (as the science of sources), these works act both as an object and as a subject of study. Source studies examines works created by people purposefully and consciously, as a holistic, internally interconnected object, as a set with typological and species properties, methods of functioning, and features of the information field inherent in a given era (culture). By studying the properties of sources, source studies develops on a real basis methods for obtaining various social information, its critical verification and interpretation, and forms criteria for evaluating works as cultural phenomena. Therefore, source study for a historian (sociologist, ethnologist, etc.) is not only an auxiliary discipline, as it was represented by the traditional methodology of history, but a self-sufficient field of knowledge, the science of sources. It develops (not yet always purposefully) specific theoretical-cognitive problems that are of fundamental importance. Therefore, a representative of humanitarian knowledge must clearly understand what source study is, its method and what are the prospects for its development. Sources constitute the objective basis of the humanities as sciences about man and his activities. The key point of the source study paradigm of historical methodology is the concept of a source as a product of purposeful human activity, a cultural phenomenon. In turn, this focuses on a systematic study of sources, on addressing the entire volume of cultural works (in the broad sense) created in the process of human activity and reflecting social, psychological, ecological-geographical, communication, information, management and other aspects of the development of society and personality, power and law, morality, motives and stereotypes of human behavior. This concept, aimed primarily at the study of primary sources and creatively developing the ideas of an interdisciplinary approach to them, creates the basis for a holistic, systematic study of a number of special problems of historical and political sciences, economics and demography, social psychology and mentality in their specific, always special, specific spatio-temporal conditions. A humanities professional (of any specific narrow specialization) must possess such a theoretical-cognitive and practical system of knowledge that opens the way for him to directly turn to the primary sources of studying his problem - office documentation, graphic, visual, audiovisual sources, legislative acts , literary-journalistic, philosophical, religious, normative-instructive, educational-propaedeutic and other works of the era. A unified view of all this diversity of cultural works of a certain era, of their original genetic functional connection at a given moment in the historical process is provided by a holistic concept of source studies, knowledge of its theory, the method of source analysis, an idea of historical disciplines as elements of the general method of cognition of sources. The methodology of source study is thus based on the fundamental unity that the object itself possesses: everything created by people (to one degree or another) is a product of a purposeful and conscious unity of purpose, creativity. The methodology of source study has the unity of its approach and subject of study. For source studies, the key is to define culture in the broadest sense. Culture is everything created by people, as opposed to everything created by nature without their participation. Culture includes objective, materially existing results of human activity - tools, structures, works of art, i.e., the entire objective, material world, formed and created by people in the process of their purposeful, meaningful activity. What people create has different purposes, forms, infinitely diverse properties and can, of course, be studied from a variety of angles. Everything created and created by people - from ancient times to modern times - can be an object of study as a whole. In turn, the unity of the approach and the subject of research is due to the fact that these objects are studied in in this case as sources of social information, as historical sources. There is a very important dependence that has universal human significance. A person, creating his work, expresses himself in it, and more broadly, his contemporary society, since a person is a social being. A work created by a person, in turn, can be used to understand its creator and obtain information about him. Modern knowledge is characterized by a global approach to cultural problems, a comparative study of various types and areas of culture that interact with each other, and an integrated approach to the study of man. The object of research is expanding unusually quickly horizontally and vertically. Horizontally - in geographical space, when the object of research becomes more and more new areas of different cultures, coexisting in one period or another, in a certain interaction with each other: at the beginning of the 20th century. The Eurocentrism of the last century is gradually, and then faster and faster, replaced by an appeal to societies and cultures of other continents. The expansion along the vertical time axis comes from the traditional past for science, almost exclusive attention to the history of European antiquity, the Middle Ages and modern times to the history of societies of ancient and modern times. Such a change in the object of research in itself contributes to the differentiation of scientific knowledge, since it is associated with the study of new languages, specific texts, unusual types of human behavior, lifestyle and mentality, the comprehension and interpretation of which require special knowledge and techniques. At the same time, there is a complication in the direction characteristic of the second half of the 20th century. and for modern times. This is manifested in an unusual growth of interest among the widest sections of society in another, different, alien and sometimes even more exotic culture; in a person’s desire to deal directly with this other culture, to try to understand it (or himself through it). It has found vivid expression in mass visits to museums, access to archival documents, and the fashion for collecting art and various historical realities. Behind the bizarre manifestations of the interests and preferences of mass consciousness can be traced a completely objective, previously unusual, new socio-cultural situation: turning to the culture of the past, or rather, to a culture inaccessible to direct perception, becomes a spiritual need not only a specialist, a scientist in the humanities, whose prerogative was traditionally, but a much wider range of people - people with a humanitarian worldview. Compared to the situation that existed in the first half of the 20th century, marked by technocratic priorities, boundless faith in the capabilities of the natural sciences, and the power of technology, this situation is new and significant. However, it poses certain difficulties. It is clear that the volume of information related to the study of the diversity of world cultures, and especially their interactions, is increasing indefinitely. This cannot but lead to qualitative changes in research methodology. Achievements of the mid-20th century. made it possible to attract new technical means for recording, transmitting, processing social information, which significantly accelerated the pace of information search, qualitatively changed the possibilities of reproduction, circulation of texts, and their accessibility to consumers. The ways of processing social information from mass sources have changed, the possibilities correlation analysis relationships between social phenomena, modeling. The use of these new opportunities for the humanities has become an important area of scientific research. No less significant for the humanities is the consumption of audiovisual sources, which have significantly changed the ratio of written and sound recording of information, written and oral evidence in the information field of the 20th century. Modern technical means, on the one hand, facilitate access to information, shorten its path to the consumer, on the other hand, contribute to an even more rapid increase in the total volume of information, and create new types of sources. The object of source study—the historical source—becomes even broader. Therefore, it is important to identify general principles of approach to historical sources, to find that essential commonality that allows one to work with sources on a fundamentally unified basis. The word "source" has many meanings. Despite the almost literal coincidence of the meanings of the word, the scope of the concept “source study” has different content. It is known that any concept must be interpreted systematically, in the context of the scientific school in which it is created and functions. It is important for us to determine the content of the concept of “source studies” in domestic science. Source study is the study of a source, which is of fundamental importance for 30 SECTION 1 humanitarian knowledge as a whole. Humanitarian knowledge should, if we talk about its main purpose, help a person who is busy solving his own, very specific, life problems - political, economic, professional, national, family, whatever, bring all experience to their solution , which humanity has accumulated. Humanitarian knowledge, therefore, must provide an answer to how people acted in a given case. We see that it is now, in the era of critical events and emergency situations, mass consciousness turns to the experience of the past. Moreover, he does this instinctively, almost at random, using the available opportunities, preferring, in particular, memoirs and documentary publications to scientific works. The adjective “historical” in the phrase “historical source” specifies not the specificity of the source, but the peculiarity of the field of knowledge that attracts sources for its research purposes - for knowledge of the past, studying the history of mankind (in this case, historical science ). At the same time, the phrase “historical source study,” which is often used as a synonym for the term “source study,” indicates the connection between source study and historical science, emphasizing that it arose and developed for a long time in connection with historical science, in the process of working with historians’ sources. Scope of application methods Source study is not limited to historical science itself. Expanding the scope of application of its methods in anthropology, ethnology, sociology, historical psychology, historical geography, cultural studies, source studies at the same time maintains its traditionally established relationship with historical science. Source studies studies more than just historical sources. It studies the system of relationships: person-work-person. This triad expresses a universal human phenomenon: one person communicates with another not directly, but indirectly, with the help of a work created by another person and reflecting his personality. Works created by people in the process of purposeful creative activity are deliberately put into a realized, embodied material form, in which these works can freely function in one or another sociocultural environment. These works (or their surviving fragments) may well record the information contained in them about the people who created these works and also (to a certain extent, regardless of the intentions of the authors) - about that historical time and place (chronotops), in which the emergence of these works and their subsequent functioning turned out to be possible. The system of source study methods and its methodology is based on this fundamental idea of sources as a cultural phenomenon, as a realized intellectual product of human activity. The methodology of source study interprets works or their surviving fragments as cultural phenomena and as sources for its study. Thinker and cultural historian L.P. Karsavin in his textbook “Theory of History” (1920) rightly noted that it is the sources that create the real possibility of scientific knowledge of the past. “Through the source, as a part of the past,” he wrote, “we get used to the unity of this past and, cognizing the part, we already cognize the whole in it.” The scientist rightly saw in the study of sources a potential opportunity for humanitarian knowledge: “With sufficient understanding and correct assessment of the sources, as parts of the past, complaints about subjectivity and unreliability in comparison with the methods of the natural sciences naturally fade and lose force. historical" 2. Thus, the ability to work with empirical data and freely navigate one’s research space is fundamentally necessary for any scientist, both a representative of the natural sciences and the humanities. For a practicing humanist, these empirical data are actually existing historical sources. It is obvious that the scientific methodology of their study - search (heuristics), typology, interpretation of the information they contain - is important. Complex research methods make it possible to recreate a fragmentarily preserved work as a cultural phenomenon of its time, to reveal the typology and specificity of the cultural whole in which this phenomenon took place. These methods are logically interconnected and constitute a single system - the methodology of source study. It is based on a systematic approach, historicism, develops and improves methods for typologizing sources, source analysis and synthesis. Without touching on all aspects of the more complex problem of the relationship between historical and sociological methods, we will only note the very formulation of the question: is it really possible to draw a clear line between the past and the present? Events of the past are woven into the living fabric of modern reality, and it is difficult to separate one from the other. New works by psychologists and researchers of the problem of perception indicate that in this situation we are not talking about hours, or even minutes, but only about seconds. The human consciousness, according to the latest research, is capable of perceiving a complete picture within 2.9 seconds. As for what follows, here it is already necessary to turn to sources of fixed information. So, from a source-study point of view, direct contact is very brief, and very soon it becomes necessary to turn to written, graphic, pictorial recording of the event that has just flashed by. In contrast to the instantaneous now and here, direct observation, access to sources makes communication independent of both time and place of action. A work created by man provides information about its creator whenever the need arises. Thus, through the created work, a person makes himself known to other people. CHAPTER 3 Source: anthropological landmark of the humanities HUMANITIES develop under the influence of complex phenomena of reality, reflecting humanity’s awareness of new problems and the search for ways to solve them. Discoveries made in special fields of knowledge cause changes in the entire system of human sciences as a whole. Source study, with its method, exists in the general space of humanities and is also busy searching for specific answers to the general requirements of the time. Therefore, first of all, we should dwell on the general situation in modern knowledge. In the 20th century the global nature and interconnectedness of all social processes became obvious. The social facts of the new reality are not directly reflected in sources of the traditional type - they require the construction of models of phenomena, rather than their description. The human personality, under the dominance of stereotypes of mass consciousness, faces the alternative of losing its uniqueness or an acute struggle for it. A stable, mainly Eurocentric base of information sources, developed in previous centuries, and the methods of its research corresponding to traditional tasks in new conditions reveal their incompleteness and discrepancy in the study of that “silent majority”, whose moods increasingly influence the course of social process. Traditional methods of social sciences require rethinking. In modern times humanitarian sciences focused on studying not so much objects as the interaction and mutual influence of man and nature, people among themselves. But it is more difficult to study interactions than objects. Interaction is changeable, transient, p. difficult to interpret and inadequately reflected in the sources. Therefore, each of the humanitarian sciences is forced to rethink its object, expanding the possibilities of observing interactions. Sociologists create complex models of interaction between the individual and society (theories of the mirror “I”, social action, etc.), historians reconstruct models of the relationship of the historian as a subject of knowledge with his (no longer observable) object. There has been a sharp increase in interest in sciences that place interaction and communication at the center of their research ( information sciences and language sciences, their interpretive aspects). Global history must be based on a broad, completely different empirical base of sources than the one that historical science currently has. Western science, in the course of understanding this problem, has proposed two answer options, which have something in common - they seem to take the solution to this problem beyond the boundaries of historical methodology itself. One of the approaches to the problem of global history is philosophical. “...To understand a part, we must first of all focus on the whole, because this whole is a field of study, intelligible in itself” 3. Another approach is interdisciplinarity, understood primarily as the use of data obtained by other sciences by one science. The question of the real object of research, which has a common goal - the formation of global history and a universal science of man, nevertheless remains open in both approaches. In the concept of source studies, the ideas of a universal human principle and a historical source are actively pursued as a means of not just learning facts, but expanding the possibilities of communication between an individual and world culture. The concept of source studies is based on the fundamental human need to overcome the boundaries of space and time and interact with people, with the culture of other eras through historical sources, acting as cultural phenomena. IN traditional society contact with a great work of thought and skill was cultivated as a special art 2 4463 34 SECTION 1 and intellectual pleasure. Modern technological means open up new unlimited possibilities for such communication. The importance of source studies in modern humanitarian knowledge and culture is growing immeasurably. The theory, method and research practice of working with sources form a single whole. Therefore, we consider the main theoretical principles and methods of their application to specific source material in three interrelated directions. Firstly, in connection with the conditions in which these theoretical ideas were formed and developed; secondly, in the system of method of source analysis and synthesis. Source study methods are also explored in their application to the sources of Russian history. Here, the general principles of the source study approach are considered primarily on the basis of the type classification of sources. This makes it possible to identify both the general and the specific in the theory and research practice of source studies. Notes 1 Jacobson R. Language and the unconscious. M., 1996. P. 233. 2 Kapsavin L.P. Introduction to History: (Theory of History). Pg., 1920. P. 38. See in more detail: Source study in Russia of the 20th century: scientific thought and social reality // Soviet historiography / Under the general. ed. Yu.H. Afanasyeva. M., 1996. pp. 54-55. 3 Toynbee L. Comprehension of history. M., 1991. S. 20 -21. SECTION 2 FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOURCE STUDIES CHAPTER 1 Criticism and interpretation as a research problem READING a great book, a manuscript for the sake of communicating with its creator and creator was an organic need in traditional culture. Such a work was protected, surrounded with an aura of high reverence, it was treated reverently and indifferently, it was reread again and again, searching for a deep meaning that was not immediately revealed. This was a communication with the author of the work, which could be continued with one’s own notes, for example, notes in the margins, ownership marks in a manuscript or bookplates in a book. On this basis, the ability to understand works of antiquity, distinguish between originals, and judge the value of a work and the features of the author’s style was developed. Based on the material of philology, methods of addressing authorship as a way of understanding a work were formed. The concept of a source and its criticism, its understanding (hermeneutics) arose in connection with the philological interpretation of the most important works of literature of classical antiquity. These issues were dealt with by interpreters of the texts of the Holy Scriptures - exegetes, humanists, thinkers and scientists. On this basis in early XIX And. general principles of addressing the work and authorship as a way of understanding the work and penetrating into the deep meaning of the text emerged. 36 SECTION 2 General principles of interpretation were practically inseparable from the specifics of the real text, serving the main goal for source studies - a better understanding of the author's intention, the meaning of the work inherent in it by its creator. In essence, the desire, for example, of the researcher of Russian chronicles A.-L. Schletser (1735-1809) to restore the “purified Nestor” was a clear expression of attention to the author of the work and understanding of the author’s intention. Schletser, a Russian historian and philologist of German origin, an adjunct at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, and later a professor at the University of Gottingen, suggested that “The Tale of Bygone Years” is the work of not only the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor, but also his successors and copyists. He believed that there was one basic text. The general doctrine of the principles of approaching a work as a source based on the study of the texts of the New Testament was formulated by the famous German theologian and philosopher F. Schleiermacher (1768-1834). In his essay “On Hermeneutics and Criticism, Especially in Their Relation to the New Testament,” he distinguished two approaches to the study of the work: the doctrine of hermeneutics and the doctrine of criticism. He defined the doctrine of hermeneutics as “the art of understanding someone else’s speech,” and distinguished grammatical and psychological interpretations. Psychological interpretation, according to the scientist, is to understand the complex of thoughts of the author as a certain “life moment” in his development. Schleiermacher interpreted the doctrine of criticism more broadly than other scientists, who most often defined criticism as the art of understanding works of antiquity and distinguishing between genuine and inauthentic ones, as well as judging their merits. The concept of criticism turned out to be not entirely clear, since the art of understanding a work, on the one hand, and establishing authenticity, on the other, are very different in their tasks and methods. The clear separation of hermeneutics and criticism contributed to the clarification of both concepts. Schleiermacher noted that the tasks of criticism arise before the researcher of a work in the case when he notices that the source “has something that should not be in it.” In other words, when there is a suspicion that the source being studied contains some errors that require a critical attitude; he divided them into mechanical ( For example, clerical errors of the text) and errors depending on the free will of the one who is recognized as the author of this work. He nevertheless paid his main attention to the consideration of the tasks of criticism, methods of establishing authenticity and inauthenticity, and not to solving more complex problems of authenticity. FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOURCE STUDIES 37 At the beginning of the 19th century, works on classical philology were of great importance for the development of methods for studying a work and its authorship. This area of humanitarian knowledge was understood very broadly at that time. Thus, the German philologist F.L. Wolf (1759-1824) considered philology as the field of knowledge of classical antiquity in its entirety. He was especially interested in the “philological reconstruction” of the works of private and public life of the Greeks and Romans. Wolf's works on the authorship of the Iliad and Odyssey had a great influence on the development of the science of classical antiquity and its methods. Wolf's overly broad understanding of philology (he came to the conclusion that “the goal of philology is purely historical”) did not, however, evoke support from either philologists or historians. The German historian B.G. made a great contribution to the development of historical criticism. Niebuhr (1766-1831), founder of the scientific-critical method and the study of history. In his classic book “Roman History” he proved the legendary ancient history Rome, using the critical method of analyzing historical evidence. The development of methods of criticism and interpretation of sources was facilitated by the works of legal historians, especially the work of the head of the historical school of law, the German lawyer F.K. Savigny (1779-1861). In works on political history Western Europe XVI-XVII centuries German historian L. von Ranke (1795-1886) proclaimed the need for an objective critical study of sources and facts in order to write history exactly the way “as it actually happened.” This thesis was associated by many of his followers with an appeal to original sources, with the need to critically verify their reliability. The scientific and critical study of the history of the New Testament and early Christianity was continued by F.K. Baur - an outstanding German Protestant theologian (1792-1860), professor at the University of Tübingen. Among French historians, the medievalist historian P. Donou (1701-1840) showed particular interest in the problems of source criticism. As a major archivist, Donu is known for developing principles for classifying documents in national archives. In addition, for a number of years he gave a course of lectures on historical criticism of sources. First third of the 19th century. characterized by the special interest of scientists in the study of cultural works, historical works, problems of authorship and genre of these works. 38 SECTION 2 CHAPTER 2 Source study as a problem of national history GREAT influence on the development of methods for analyzing historical sources was exerted by large scientific discoveries first third of the 19th century They contributed to the study of many historical sources and the improvement of methods for their critical analysis. One of the largest initiatives is related to the publication of the famous series of historical monuments of German history (“Monumenta Germaniae Historica”), which greatly influenced the creation of the union of German states. Thus, Prussia’s failures in the war with Napoleon encouraged the government to carry out liberal reforms and strengthened the desire of the German states for unification. An important role in the formation of national identity was assigned to the publication of historical documents of German history. The origins of the publication were the statesman and liberal reformer head of the Prussian government in 1807-1808. G.F. von Stein. In 1815, von Stein retired from political activities and, using his own funds, undertook this major scientific and historical publication. During the implementation of this initiative in 1819, it was created scientific society“Die Gesellschaft für ältere Geschichtskunde.” His activities were aimed at researching documents, sources of German history and their subsequent scientific and critical publication. The general long-term plan for collecting, scientific criticism and publication was developed by the historian G.G. Pepper. Thus was the beginning of the famous “Monuments of German History” series, which continues successfully and continues to this day. The first issue was published in 1826. The publication became a genuine school for the study of sources and their scientific criticism. It was divided into five major sections by type of source: Scriptores (historical writers in the broad sense); Leges (laws and legal collections); Diplomata (documents); Epistolae (letters); Antiquitates (antiquities), not completely defined in terms of species composition. The historian and bibliographer G. Weitz (1813-1886) took a direct part in this publication. Since 1875, he became the editor-in-chief of the publication. With his works, he laid the foundation for a special historical school of studying the history of government institutions and the social system of medieval Germany. His name is also associated with the creation in 1830 of the famous bibliography “Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte” (“Source Studies of German History”). This work is also interesting from the point of view of the formation of the term “source studies”. Data in a word For the first time, a whole direction of research was named. It replaced the inaccurate and difficult-to-translate “historical study,” which was originally the name of the scientific society for the study of sources founded by von Stein. It should be noted that the bibliography “Source Studies of German History”, in the preparation of which, in addition to G. Weid, the statesman F.K. Dalman (1785-1860), is a complete retrospective bibliography of source studies, presented in a systematic manner. It is highly appreciated by specialists. (The first edition was published in 1830, the tenth in the 1980s). Constant reprints of the book indicate that it has not lost its significance to this day. So, the concept of “source study” arose as a result of the collection, study and systematization of historical sources. In other words, the tremendous work done by G. Weitz together with his associates to identify, scientifically criticize and evaluate historical sources constituted the scientific research direction, the development of which contributed to the establishment of source studies as a science. In Russia, the collection and publication of historical sources became especially active after the Patriotic War of 1812, which played a major role in the formation of historical consciousness and increased interest in the past. Back in 1811, a commission for printing state charters and treaties was created at the Moscow Archive of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. After 1812, its activities intensified with the support of Chancellor Count N.P. Rumyantsev (1754-1826). The monumental “Collection of state charters and treaties stored in the State Collegium of Foreign Affairs” included state acts of 1229-1696. Since 1834, the publication of historical documents was concentrated in the Archaeographic Commission, created under the Ministry of Public Education. The Commission published a number of multi-volume publications. According to a single plan and rules. 1837 The Complete Collection of Russian Chronicles began to be published. Haven't lost it yet scientific significance “Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire”, the publication of which was headed by the famous statesman, author of the plan for state reforms under Alexander I M.M. Speransky (1772-1839). These and many other major initiatives for collecting, studying and publishing historical documents served as a powerful stimulus for the development of source studies and scientific criticism of sources. 40 SECTION 2 CHAPTER 3 Source as a self-sufficient research problem CHARACTERISTIC for the first half of the 19th century. The sociocultural type, the method of humanitarian thinking, was distinguished by a direct appeal to the source, the desire to holistically perceive the work, and through it the personality of its author. This is associated with great attention to the form, to the genre features of the work. An essential feature of that time is the historicism of culture, the connection between history and politics: statesmen participated in historical research and publications and, conversely, professional historians were involved in public policy. “Note on Ancient and New Russia” N.M. Karamzin, the country’s past, its present and development prospects form a single concept; historical works of A.S. Pushkin, state leaders, and not only Russia, on the codification of legislation and the publication of monuments of state and law act as convincing examples for understanding the situation that developed in the first half of the 19th century. situations. A better understanding of the connection between history and politics for the humanities of that time comes from direct participation in the activities of archives. Before him passes the entire political system of the country, its structure, social stratification and, what is also very important, the ways of its functioning (through surviving documents). A humanist of this type is not necessarily a historian or writer. He is a statesman by way of thinking. If he is a historiographer like Karamzin, then he is also the author of “Notes on Ancient and New Russia,” that is, a political scientist and reformer. If a poet, then he thinks like a sociologist, for example, like Pushkin in “Boris Godunov” and historical stories. If a diplomat, then a major politician like A.M. Gorchakov, or the poet - teacher of the heir, the future tsar - culturologist V.A. Zhukovsky, or diplomat-philosopher, like F.F. Tyutchev. Common to all is a scientific approach to the source as a phenomenon, a large-scale view of the country and its historical destinies, an understanding of the political system of the state, the relationship between the people and the government. In the second half of the 19th century. a different cultural situation was created. The synthesis of historian-official - statesman in one person is no longer traceable. Outstanding historian S.M. Soloviev (1820-1879) was not a state historiographer, like N.M. Karamzin. Liberal professors, philosophers and legal scholars like K.D. Kavelina, B.N. Chicherina, M.M. Kovalevsky, as a rule, are excluded from public service and university teaching for many years. The gap between government and society is growing, becoming critical. Attention to historical works as such, on the one hand, and the need to turn to new sets of historical documents in connection with the rise of national consciousness in European countries, on the other, caused in the middle of the 19th century. a significant increase in interest in historical research; Accordingly, the problems of special training for carrying out such research have become more urgent. General university education turned out to be clearly insufficient for this purpose. At the same time, the same problem arose as a practical problem of archives. It was realized primarily in France. Here, as a result of the largest event in the history of modern times - the Great French Revolution - there was a change in the entire administrative apparatus, institutions, political system . The old institutions ceased to exist, thereby creating both the opportunity and the need to centralize the archives of modern times. We were talking about the archives of the political system, power and administration of the old regime, about documents from the political, administrative, and religious archives of not only the state, but also the nation. At the same time, a new problem arose - the provision of archives as the property of the nation at the disposal of citizens. Historical education of the old type could not solve such problems or form a new specialist. In 1821, the School of Charters was created in Paris. Its goal was to train archivists and librarians, specialists to work with a huge array of documents from the medieval history of France. Usually, when they talk about the School of Charters, they pay attention to the fact that it was here, and at that time only here, that paleography, diplomacy, and other historical disciplines were taught, which made it possible to conduct research work with documents of the medieval era. Since 1846, the cadre of French archivists was formed mainly from graduates of the School of Charters; since 1850, this provision has become mandatory. Following the Charter School, similar higher schools were created in other countries of Western Europe, in particular, in 1854 in Vienna, the German historian and polymath T. von Sickel (1826-1908) founded the Institute of Austrian Historical Research. Sickel spent several years in Paris studying at the School of Charters. In the institute he created, diplomacy, paleography and other historical disciplines related to the criticism of sources developed especially widely. In 1856, the School of Diplomacy was opened in Madrid under the auspices of the Academy of History, in 1857 - the School of Paleography and Diplomacy in Florence under the leadership of Fr. Bonaini (1806-1874), Italian polymath and archivist. Led by historian-archivists, most of them medievalists, archives became research centers of historical science. Yes, Fr. Bonaini reformed the archives of Tuscany and the repositories of state archives in Florence, Pisa, Siena, Lucca, the Belgian historian and archivist L.P. Gachar (1800-1885) - archives of Belgium, English historian and archivist F. Palgraf (1788-1861) - archives of Great Britain. This generation of scientists created valuable descriptions of large archival funds and opened up the possibility of publishing documents that were most important for the history of the country. All these facts allow us to take a fresh look at what constitutes a type of source studies education that is different from university education in the traditional sense. Usually, the main emphasis is on knowledge of methods of working with sources: paleography, diplomacy, etc. While this approach is correct, it does not fully cover the essence of the problem: major government politicians remain on the sidelines from direct participation in research and publishing work. predominantly of the liberal direction (G. von Stein - in Prussia, Fr. Guizot - in France, M.M. Speransky and N.P. Rumyantsev - in Russia). These are political figures who well understood the state-political significance of the publications of sources, their role in shaping the image of the country both among its citizens and in the European world. The formation of national states, the development of ideas of legal and civil rights of the individual, the growth of historical consciousness formed a special approach to the historical document, which turned into a document of history in the eyes of society. A historian, an archivist, and a statesman share common ideas of national self-identification, associating with it a careful, interested and even professional attitude towards national historical memory. The creation of the School of Charters in France, the grandiose socio-scientific initiative to publish fundamental series of historical documents (“Monuments of German History”), the activities of Russian educators and philanthropists in Russia, a special type of intellectuals - guardians of the national historical tradition (“ archival youths" of Pushkin's time) laid the foundations for the concept of the activity of an archivist as a specialist of the highest qualification, FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOURCE STUDIES 43 masterful research of historical texts. However, what for a long time served as the main professional advantage and source of pride of a professional archivist, historian, textual critic, in changing conditions late XIX- beginning of the 20th century began to be perceived critically. The focus of this type of intellectual was the regional studies, rather highly specialized model of a specialist. The focus on the fundamental erudite study of traditional institutions and office materials and historical sources placed the highest demands on a highly specialized set of auxiliary historical techniques, closely related to a specific type of documentation. A historian-researcher-country specialist, an archivist-historian of institutions, a diplomat-textual critic, studying specific issues, could hardly move on to a theoretical understanding of professional methods. A specialist of this type experienced great difficulties when the transition from regional studies to global generalizations turned out to be necessary. Such a specialist is not ready for a theoretical generalization of accumulated empirical experience. About their attitude to historical knowledge, L. Febvre (1878-1956) wrote: “History is history - that was the starting point for its definition” 1 . Unpreparedness to comprehend one’s own research practice put such a specialist in a critical situation. “The new century,” A. Toynbee wrote about this situation in historical science, “has outlined its field of research, which is not limited by the framework of one nationality, and scientists will be forced to adapt their method to intellectual operations on a wider scale” 2. The formation of the methodology of history and the isolation of methods of historical research as a special subject of professional historical education began at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. a characteristic tendency of the new mentality of intellectual historians. CHAPTER 4 Sources as a means of knowledge for the historian IN THE SECOND half of the 19th century. public consciousness has changed noticeably. The methodology of social and natural sciences was increasingly influenced by positivism, which considered scientific knowledge only as a cumulative result of specific 44 SECTION 2 special sciences. In the humanitarian culture, there has been a move away from the study of original works as the subject and purpose of research. They began to be viewed primarily as a preliminary stage to the creation of sociological constructs. The idea of the purpose of historical science and the methodology for achieving historical knowledge has also changed. Monographs and textbooks of that time reflect a positivist approach to the concept of historical methodology. The most striking expression of this was the book of two prominent French scientists and teachers of higher education, Sh.-V. Langlois (1863-1920) and C. Senyobosa (1854-1942) “Introduction to the study of history” (1898)3. It met the objectives of the new humanitarian education, carried out in accordance with the reform of 1864. higher education in France. In connection with the reform, the School of Higher Studies with a department of history and philosophy was created at the Sorbonne. The main idea was to prepare young people for original research of a scientific nature. “They should have tried to do for all parts world history something that had been done for a long time at the School of Charters in a limited area of \u200b\u200bthe medieval history of France." According to Langlois, during the time that elapsed from the time of the Duruy reform until the end of the 19th century, all these institutions, once so dissimilar, began to work in the same direction for the sake of one common cause, although each retained its name, autonomy and its traditions , and their evolution undoubtedly led to beneficial consequences. It was at this time, in 1890-1897, while lecturing to Sorbonne students about what the study of history is and should be, Langlois and Senobos came to the conviction that a special manual should be created on this problem. Their “Introduction to the Study of History” was not intended to replace the future historian’s professional training: it was supposed to encourage the specialist to think about the methods of studying historical material, which are sometimes applied as if mechanically. At the same time, the book was supposed to show the public reading the works of historians how these works are written and from what positions it is possible to judge them correctly. In the new reality of historical consciousness of the second half of the 19th century. the study of an individual work and the integrity of the author’s intentions faded into the background. All disciplines that made it possible to perceive works in their entirety began to be interpreted as purely auxiliary. The graphics, the texture of the manuscript, its external features, i.e., what, in essence, is only an expression of the existence of the document, its internal meaning, began to be interpreted with a technical, one might say formal, approach. rona. Diplomacy, paleography, sphragistics, textual criticism were interpreted perhaps as technical techniques, ways of overcoming the annoying barrier of illegibility and incomprehensibility of the text. According to the concept of Langlois and Seignobos, there are three main stages in historical knowledge. The first is the stage of “preliminary information,” which primarily includes the search and collection of documents necessary for the historian (to denote this stage, the authors use the term “heuristics”). Here, in particular, the most important reference publications (such as catalogues, inventories of archives, libraries and museums, historical bibliographic materials, all kinds of indexes and reference books) that contribute to the search for documents are considered. All “auxiliary sciences” belong to the same stage. They are interpreted precisely as “the technical training of a historian and polymath,” as a certain stock of technical knowledge that neither natural talent nor even knowledge of a method can replace. The teaching of these “auxiliary sciences” and “technical techniques” is highly valued by the positivist authors of “Introduction to the Study of History”: the teaching of auxiliary sciences and techniques research was introduced only for medieval (French) history and only in a special School of Charters. This simple circumstance provided the School of Charters with a noticeable advantage over all other higher education institutions for 50 years. educational institutions not only French, but also foreign; she trained a number of brilliant researchers who published a lot of new data. The technical training of those involved in medieval history was best provided at the School of Charters, primarily through courses in Romanesque philology, paleography, archaeology, historiography and medieval law. Many manuals on paleography, epigraphy and diplomacy appeared. The second scientific research stage in historical knowledge was defined by Langlois and Senobos as “analytical processes.” This term denoted both external (preparatory) criticism of a source, related to its origin and authorship, and internal criticism, understood as its interpretation and criticism of reliability. The main criterion for the latter is the judgment about the accuracy and sincerity of the author of the document. It is important to note that positivist scientists represented criticism precisely as a preparatory stage of the historian’s activity. The analysis of a source within the framework of this approach ends with parrying the data it contains, separating trustworthy facts from unreliable ones. Viewed in this way, the document turns into “a long series of author’s concepts and evidence of facts.” With this approach to criticism and interpretation, the document (source) is not evaluated as a whole. The preliminary analytical stage is necessary and sufficient for the subsequent, more complex stage of the historian’s work, which in this concept is called synthesis, a synthetic process. At this highest stage, individual facts are systematized, historical construction is carried out, general formulas are created, and, finally, a historical exposition is given. What is valuable in this technique is a careful study of the connection between the personal characteristics (of the creator of the source) and the information that he could and wanted to convey. For their model of critical study of sources, Langlois and Seignobos used detailed questionnaires created under the direct influence of the achievements of sociology of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. By asking the questions they formulate consistently, it is possible to better study the complex circumstances of the creation of the source and the level of reliability of the information reported. The textbook by Langlois and Seignobos reveals a characteristic approach to the positivist paradigm towards systematizing the material available to the researcher. Interpretation and historical construction, historical synthesis - as a stage of research work - are presented in the book precisely by ordering schemes for the distribution of individual isolated facts according to chronological or thematic principles. Distinguishing between sources containing primary and secondary (second-hand) information, as well as debates about the merits of documentary (diplomatic) sources before narrative dates back to the 17th-18th centuries. German methodologist and historian I.G. Droysen (1808-1884) in his “Historian” based the classification of sources on the principle of the relationship between source and fact; alone historical facts came to us directly (historical remains), and others - in the testimonies of other people about them (historical legends). Droysen did not exclude, however, the possibility of mixing these features (highlighting, in particular, mixed sources, for example, material ones with an explanatory inscription, etc.). Big interest to the ordering of the objects themselves - historical sources - is a characteristic feature of another classic methodological work - “Textbook of the historical method” by E. Bernheim (1850-1942)4. The author developed the most detailed and thorough classification of historical sources. Classification as the division of a set of studied objects into logical classes is of great importance in science not only for organizing knowledge about fragments of reality, but above all for identifying the properties and features of these objects. At a certain level of development of any science, classification becomes necessary and possible. In the cognitive situation represented by the Eurocentric model of historical science, it was both timely and possible. E. Bernheim built his classification according to the degree of closeness of the source to the facts, accordingly distinguishing between historical remains and historical tradition (legends). This classification became fundamental in Bernheim’s concept for developing methods for checking the reliability of sources. In relation to the remains, it was necessary to check their authenticity (compliance with the parameters of time, place and authorship stated in them). When checking indirect sources of evidence, all possible research techniques within the framework of traditional criticism of evidence come to the fore. Bernheim, like earlier Droysen, as a practicing historian, of course, understood perfectly well that this principle of classification cannot be carried out consistently enough, since it is very difficult to correlate direct and indirect, primary and secondary evidence from a source. Using this classification, he was able to draw the attention of scientists to the differences in social information in the sources being studied and to the need to use different methods of its interpretation; some must rely on the material side of the source, its spatial characteristics, when the source acts as a fragment of a past reality, its remnant; others require a logical-substantive analysis of the content of the text. CHAPTER 5 Positivist methods of historical research WHICH was at one time the result of the successes of the natural sciences in the field of comprehending patterns in the natural world, positivism had a certain influence on the humanities. Refusal of speculative judgments, a priori schemes and arbitrary interpretations of facts, the desire for 48 SECTION 2 evidence and reproducibility of the results of scientific research, the deepest respect for science and the personality of the scientist - all these are priority psychological attitudes for the positivist paradigm are also characteristic of this type of humanist. The methodology of historical research is isolated as a subject of special consideration and becomes academic discipline. Quite in the spirit of the positivist paradigm, this methodology was focused on identifying, describing and organizing empirical information about scientific objects. “People who were involved historical research at the end of the nineteenth century, there was very little interest in the theory of what they were doing. In full accordance with the spirit of the positivist era, historians of that time considered it a professional norm to more or less openly despise philosophy in general and the philosophy of history in particular,” this is how the English methodologist R.J. characterized such a cognitive situation. Collingwood (1889-1943)5. As already mentioned, the most clearly positivistic attitudes historical method expressed Sh.-V. Langlois and C. Senobos in "Introduction to the Study of History." For a historian, according to a positivist, the main thing is the presence of a real object, a document, a “text”: “History is studied with the help of texts.” Even the severe critic of this approach, L. Febvre, does not deny the undoubted persuasiveness of this positivist formula. “The famous formula: to this day it has not lost all its advantages,” writes Febvre, “and they are, without a doubt, invaluable. For honest workers, legitimately proud of their erudition, oma served as a password and battle cry in battles with lightweight, somehow concocted opuses” 6. Written by the researcher of the “Political History of Modern Europe”, Sorbonne Professor C. Senobos and his colleague, a brilliant expert on sources on the history of medieval Europe, C. Langlois, a small, elegant, slightly ironic book “Introduction to the Study of History”, it would seem, should have been forgotten long ago, like so many others. But this did not happen, which means that she expressed her time correctly. Let's think about her secret. The book presents the image of a historian who is confident in the reality of his empirical data, in the comprehensibility of his sources, which are so necessary for him. This is the situation of the Eurocentric historical model, on which more than one generation of scientists has worked. This situation is described by an adherent of a fundamentally different paradigm, a historian of a different generation, A. Toynbee, as follows: “Since the time of Mommsen and Ranke, historians began to spend most of their efforts on collecting raw material - FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOURCE STUDIES 49 inscriptions, documents, etc. - publishing them in the form of anthologies or private notes for periodicals. When processing the collected materials, scientists often resorted to division of labor. As a result, extensive research appeared, which was published in series of volumes... Such series are monuments to human diligence, “factuality” and the organizational power of our society. They will take their place along with amazing tunnels, bridges and dams, liners, cruisers and skyscrapers, and their creators will be remembered among the famous engineers of the West” 7. Methods for critiquing evidence obtained from eyewitnesses of events and from those who received information from second or third hands, or used reliable documents, have been improved and refined many times since the publications of the 17th century. Is this why, when reading the methodological work of Langlois and Senobos, we are left with a feeling of lightness, as if we are not moving along the path of creating a historical narrative, but seem to be hovering over it, seeing it from above, and it is all from the beginning (preparatory processes) and until successful completion (presentation) - logically verified and well known. So, first of all - finding documents (heuristics); then analysis (external, preparatory, criticism); internal criticism (criticism of interpretation - hermeneutics, negative internal criticism of reliability - through checking the sincerity and accuracy of evidence and, as a result, the establishment of particular facts). Next comes the stage of synthesis, which, in the spirit of the positivist paradigm, is achieved by grouping previously identified facts and constructing general formulas. The presentation of the research results completes the creation of a historical narrative. Thus, on the basis of the Eurocentric model of historical science empirically supported by sources, publications, and archival documents, a certain type of historical professionalism can be traced, based on the effect of “knowledge of the known”: knowledge of a document, a certain amount of established facts, methods of critical selection of evidence composed by the intellectual efforts of generations. Each stage of research work is open to the scientific community and accessible to its control. The methodology of “knowledge of the known,” developed in the spirit of the positivist model of Eurocentric historiography and based on relatively stable ideas about the object of historical knowledge, soon came into conflict with reality. Positivists developed their own methods, their own criteria for the objectivity of historical knowledge and the corresponding requirements for historical images