The biological evolution of man ended at the stage of formation. The main stages of human evolution. The historical past of people

The most ancient stone tools are found in East Africa, North and South Asia. It was in these areas that australopithecines. They were more ape-like than human, although they could walk on two legs. It is generally accepted that Australopithecus used sticks and sharp stones as weapons, but, most likely, did not yet know how to handle them.

Approximately 1.0 million - 700 thousand years ago, a period begins, which is called early Paleolithic(from Greek. "paleo" - "ancient" and "cast"- "stone"). Excavations in France, near the villages of Shell and Saint-Achel, made it possible to find the remains of caves and ancient settlements, where successive generations of predecessors of modern man lived for tens of thousands of years. Subsequently, such finds were discovered in other places.

Archaeological research has made it possible to trace how the tools of labor and hunting changed. Tools made of bone and sharpened stone (points, scrapers, axes) became more and more perfect and durable. The physical type of a person changed: he more and more adapted to moving on the ground without the help of hands, the volume of the brain increased.

So, the volume of the brain of a great ape was about 300-600 cubic meters. cm, Australopithecus - 600-700 cu. cm, Pithecanthropus - 800-870 cu. see, Sinanthropus and Heidelberg man - more than 1000 cubic meters. see, Neanderthal - 1300-1700 cu. see, modern man - 1400-1800 cubic meters. cm.

The most important achievement of the early Paleolithic was the mastery of the ability to use fire (about 200-300 thousand years ago) to heat the home, cook food, and protect against predators.

Initially, people did not know how to kindle a fire. Its source was accidental forest and steppe fires, the extracted fire was constantly maintained in the hearths. The ancient Greek legend about Prometheus, who stole the knowledge of fire from the gods, is probably an echo of the memory of very old times.

The period of a sharp change in the natural conditions of existence ends the time of the early Paleolithic. primitive people. The onset of glaciers began, approximately 100 thousand years ago, covering almost the entire territory of Russia, Central and Western Europe. Many herds of primitive Neanderthal hunters could not adapt to the new conditions of existence. Between them, the struggle for diminished sources of food intensified.

By the end of the early Paleolithic (about 30-20 thousand years BC), Neanderthals completely disappeared in Eurasia and Africa. Established everywhere man of the modern, Cro-Magnon type.

World religions proceeded from ideas about the creation of man higher powers. In the 19th century, during the period of domination of natural-scientific views, a view was formed in science according to which man is the product of a long, gradual evolution. However, in the 20th century, the idea of ​​an extraterrestrial origin of man began to spread in popular science literature.

The fact is that modern science does not have indisputable data on the immediate ancestors of modern humans. It is assumed that he could not be a product of the evolution of Neanderthals, which represented a dead end branch of evolution. In other words, the most important, transitional link has not yet been found in the chain of successive human predecessors.

Under the influence of differences in natural conditions, the main races of people.

Racial characteristics are very diverse. The most obvious are pigmentation (coloration of the skin and hair), the shape of the skull, the development and shape of the hairline (beard, mustache, head hair), eye shape, height. The use of modern research methods includes the analysis of the prevailing blood groups, papillary patterns on the fingers, and the shape of the teeth.

There is no data proving the existence of any races of mental, psychic, physiological and other advantages over the rest. All of them belong to a single biological species of "reasonable man" ( Homo sapiens).

The main races usually include Negroid, Caucasoid, Mongoloid and Oceanic (Australoid).

The main features of the Negroid races are usually attributed to dark skin pigmentation, coarse curly hair, weak growth of a beard and mustache, and a protruding front of the skull. A Negroid race has developed on the African continent, although archaeologists find traces of its residence in southern Europe.

The Mongoloids are dominated by dark, straight hair, they are characterized by a specific cut of the eyes, a facial skeleton with protruding cheekbones. The Mongoloids lived in Southeast, East, Central and partially - Central Asia, in Siberia, on the islands of Polynesia and in America.

Caucasoids are characterized by soft hair, a strong development of the hairline, a developed profile of the facial skeleton, and a protruding nose. During the Mesolithic period, Caucasoids lived in Europe, Western and Central Asia, on the Hindustan Peninsula.

As a separate large race, it is also customary to single out the oceanic race, whose representatives lived in small groups over a vast territory from South Asia to Australia and Oceania. A distinctive feature of this race is a combination of Negroid and Caucasian features.

The big races are by no means homogeneous. So, for example, for Caucasians of the north, the predominance of blond hair and blue eyes is typical. Caucasians of the south are distinguished by a darker skin color and darker hair. At the boundaries of residence big races transitional racial groups formed. Thus, mulattos, the Ethiopian race, ethnic groups living in Sudan are transitional between Caucasian and Negroid races. A mixed form between Caucasoids and Asian Mongoloids were some peoples of Siberia, the Trans-Urals and Central Asia.

The study of the history of races and the nature of their settlement around the globe is the most important source of knowledge about the life of peoples and their origin.

Man masters his planet

Epoch Mesolithic(from Greek. "mesos" - "middle" and "cast" - "stone") covers the period from XX to IX-VIII millennium BC It is characterized by a new change in natural conditions, which are becoming more favorable: the glaciers are retreating, new territories are becoming available for settlement.

During this period, the population of the Earth did not exceed 10 million people. This is not much, but with the predominance of the economy of the appropriating type (hunting, fishing, gathering), it was necessary to constantly expand the territory of hunting grounds. The weakest tribes were forced out to the periphery of the inhabited world. Approximately 25 thousand years ago, man first entered the American continent, about 20 thousand years ago - to Australia.

The history of the settlement of America and Australia causes a lot of controversy. It is generally accepted that a person could have been on these continents even before the end of the ice age, when the ocean level was about 100 m lower than the modern one and there were land bridges connecting these continents with Eurasia. At the same time, scientists, noting that there were several waves of migration to overseas continents, prove that already at the dawn of their history, people could cross wide water spaces. Norwegian explorer T. Heyerdahl, in order to prove the correctness of this point of view, crossed the Pacific Ocean on a raft made using technologies that could have been available to man during the Mesolithic.

In the Mesolithic era, it originates and becomes widespread rock painting. In the remains of dwellings of that time, archaeologists find figurines depicting people, animals, beads and other decorations. All this indicates the onset of a new stage in the knowledge of the world. Abstract symbols and generalized concepts that arose with the development of speech acquire, as it were, an independent life in drawings and figurines. Many of them were associated with rituals, rituals of primitive magic.

The greatest mystery for man was himself, the process of cognition, understanding the nature of intellectual activity and the abilities associated with it. Primitive magic was built on the belief in the possibility of words, symbolic actions and drawings to influence distant objects and other people, in the special significance of dreams. Early beliefs sometimes did indeed have a certain rational basis. However, they often became fetters for further knowledge of the world.

The large role of chance in people's lives gave rise to attempts to improve the situation in hunting, in life. So there was a belief in signs, favorable or unfavorable. Fetishism appeared - the belief that certain objects (talismans) have a special magical power. Among them were figurines of animals, stones, amulets supposedly bringing good luck to their owner. Beliefs arose, for example, that a warrior who drank the blood of an enemy or ate his heart acquires special strength. Hunting, treating the sick, choosing a couple (boys or girls) were preceded by ritual actions, among which dance and singing were of particular importance. Mesolithic people knew how to make percussion, wind, stringed and plucked musical instruments.

Particular importance was attached to funeral rituals, which became more and more complex over time. In ancient burials, archaeologists find jewelry and tools that people used during their lifetime, food supplies. This proves that already at the dawn of history there were widespread beliefs in the existence of the other world, where a person lives after death.

Gradually, faith in higher powers was strengthened, which could both help and harm. It was assumed that they could be cajoled by sacrifice, most often - part of the booty, it had to be left in a certain place. Some tribes practiced human sacrifice.

It was believed that some people have great abilities to communicate with higher powers, spirits. Gradually, along with the leaders (they usually became the strongest, most successful, experienced hunters), priests (shamans, sorcerers) began to play a prominent role in the life of primitive tribes. They usually knew the healing properties of herbs, perhaps had some hypnotic abilities and had a great influence on their fellow tribesmen.

In the evolution of man (Homo) there are three stages:

1. The most ancient people, which include Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus and

Heidelberg man (Homo erectus species).

• 2. Ancient people - Neanderthals (the first representatives of the Homo sapiens species).
• 3. Modern (new) people, including fossil Cro-Magnons and modern people(species Homo sapiens) Tikhomirov VN Biology: textbook. allowance for the 7th grade. general education institutions with Russian. lang. training / VN Tikhomirov // -- Minsk: Nar. asveta, 2010. -199 p. .

The line of man separated from the trunk common with monkeys not earlier than 10 and not later than 6 million years ago. The first representatives of the genus Homo appeared about 2 million years ago, and modern man - no later than 50 thousand years ago. ancient footprints labor activity date back to 2.5 - 2.8 million years (tools from Ethiopia). Many populations of Homo sapiens did not replace each other sequentially, but lived simultaneously, fighting for existence and destroying the weaker ones.

The oldest people lived 2 million - 500 thousand years ago. Pithecanthropus - "ape man". The remains were first discovered on about. Java in 1891 by E. Dubois, and then in a number of other places. Pithecanthropes walked on two legs, their brain volume increased, they used primitive tools in the form of clubs and lightly hewn stones. A low forehead, powerful brow ridges, a half-bent body with abundant hair - all this indicated their recent (monkey) past. Sinanthropus, whose remains were found in 1927 - 1937. in a cave near Beijing, in many respects similar to Pithecanthropus, this is a geographical version of Homo erectus. Sinanthropes already knew how to maintain fire. The main factor in the evolution of ancient people was natural selection.

Ancient people characterize the next stage of anthropogenesis, when social factors also begin to play a role in evolution: labor activity in the groups they lived in, a joint struggle for life and the development of intellect. These include Neanderthals, whose remains were found in Europe, Asia, and Africa. They got their name from the place of the first discovery in the valley of the river. Neander (Germany). Neanderthals lived in the ice age 200 - 35 thousand years ago in caves, where they constantly kept fire, dressed in skins. Neanderthal labor tools are much more perfect and have some specialization: knives, scrapers, percussion tools. They are more elaborate and have some specialization: knives, side-scrapers, percussion instruments. They received their real name at the place of the first find in the valley of the river. Neander (Germany). Jaws testified to articulate speech. Neanderthals lived in groups of 50 to 100 people. Men collectively hunted, women and children gathered edible roots and fruits, old men made tools. The last Neanderthals lived among the first modern people, and then they were finally forced out by them. Some scientists consider Neanderthals a dead-end branch of hominin evolution that did not participate in the formation of modern man.

Modern people. The emergence of people of the modern physical type occurred relatively recently, about 50 thousand years ago. Their remains have been found in Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia. In the grotto of Cro-Magnon (France), several skeletons of fossil people of the modern type were discovered at once, who were called Cro-Magnons. They possessed the whole complex of physical features that are characteristic. They possessed all the complex of physical features that is characteristic of articulate speech, as indicated by a developed chin protrusion; the construction of dwellings, the first rudiments of art (rock paintings), clothing, decorations, perfect bone and stone tools, the first tamed animals - all indicate that this is a real person, completely isolated from his bestial ancestors. Neanderthals, Cro-Magnons and modern people form one species - Homo sapiens - a reasonable person; this species was formed no later than 100 - 40 thousand years ago. In the evolution of the Cro-Magnons, social factors were of great importance, the role of education and the transfer of experience grew immeasurably. The driving forces of anthropogenesis. In human evolution - anthropogenesis - the most important role belongs not only to biological factors (variability, heredity, selection), but also to social factors (speech, accumulated work experience and social behavior). Human characteristics due to social factors, are not fixed genetically and are not transmitted by inheritance, but in the process of education and training. In the first stages of evolution, selection for greater adaptability to rapidly changing circumstances was of decisive importance. Subsequently, however, the ability to pass on genetic acquisitions from generation to generation in the form of a variety of scientific, technical and cultural information began to play an increasingly important role, freeing man from the strict control of natural selection. Social patterns have become important in human evolution. The winners in the struggle for existence were not necessarily the strongest, but those who kept the weak: children - the future of the population, old people - the keepers of information about how to survive (hunting techniques, making tools, etc.). The victory of populations in the struggle for existence was ensured not only by strength and intelligence, but also by the ability to sacrifice themselves in the name of the family, the tribe. Man is a social being, the distinguishing feature of which is consciousness, formed on the basis of collective labor.

Social relations play an ever-increasing role in the evolution of Homo sapiens. For modern people, social and labor relations have become leading and determining. This is the qualitative originality of human evolution.

First stage- the emergence of the ancestors of primates. The oldest primitive primates arose at the end of the Cretaceous period, their ancestors were the oldest placental mammals - endotheria. Anthropologists believe that the ancestral form of primates was a small pre-Tertiary ancestor of insectivorous type tuppaii (rat-sized), leading a semi-arboreal lifestyle. The oldest primates originated in Asia, from where they settled on the continents of the Old World and moved to North America. It was the primitive forms of primates (particularly the tarsiers) that gave rise to the original forms of New and Old World monkeys. The emergence of primates according to paleontology falls on a period of approximately 60 million years.

The ancestors of primitive insectivorous mammals survived under the dominance of reptiles by feeding on insects. Reptiles almost did not eat insects. In ancient mammals, thanks to parental care, offspring survived in greater numbers and were less dependent on environment In addition, according to paleontologists, ancient mammals had small body sizes, led a twilight or nocturnal lifestyle. Some insectivores led a terrestrial lifestyle, others adapted to life on trees, which led to changes in the structure of the body and limbs.

Some of the insectivores began to move by jumping, while the hind limbs became longer and more powerful than the front ones, and the claws on the toes of the hind legs became useless, they shortened, flattened and turned into nails. On the forelimbs, they remained claws, as they were necessary in order to cling to branches when jumping.

Other ancient insectivores gradually underwent changes in the heel of the foot, with the simultaneous development of the grasping abilities of the forelimbs, their fingers lengthened for better grip on branches and the emergence of the ability of the thumb to oppose the rest, in order to cover thin branches. Thus, the suborder of tarsiers (therzioids) was formed.

The ability to keep the body in an upright position was developed under the influence of an arboreal lifestyle, which led to the fact that the spinal column became stronger, the back muscles were restructured, and the functions of the lower and upper limbs changed. The length of the muzzle was shortened, the skull was rounded. There were changes in the organs of vision, since it was necessary to accurately navigate and correctly assess the distances when jumping, so stereoscopic vision arose due to the movement of the eyes to the front side of the skull. This was a huge evolutionary gain for the tarsier compared to the ancestral forms of the primates. The progress of the organs of vision has led to a weakening of the role of smell, in comparison with land animals.

The ancestors of primitive arboreal primates developed adaptations for climbing. Their fore and hind limbs were specialized as grasping. They moved equally both vertically and horizontally, therefore, the descendants of this group became more and more similar to modern monkeys. The grasping abilities of the limbs led to the development of special receivers of tactile stimuli in the form of convex tactile pads covered with lines and patterns. In humans and monkeys, the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet are covered with papillary patterns. Animal movements became complex and varied, which led to the development of motor areas of the brain. Insect nutrition was supplemented with plant foods, which enriched the body with a variety of substances, and this stimulated the complication and growth of brain volume. This group of primates gave rise to a branch of prosimians (lemurs) at the beginning of the Paleogene.

The second stage is the appearance of real monkeys and human ancestors. ka. The study of the fossil remains of ancient monkeys and ancient people allows us to trace the emergence characteristic features person. Fossil broad-nosed primates have been found exclusively in the Upper Miocene layers near Santa Cruz (Patagonia, South America). The initial forms for them were the North American tarsier, which penetrated into South America. Broad-nosed monkeys in America developed completely isolated from the Old World monkeys and, through the process of natural selection, reached a high level of evolution and a kind of specialization (tenacious tail). Despite enough high level development, American cebus monkeys (which include the modern coatu monkey) could not be human ancestors.

Fossil remains of lower narrow-nosed monkeys, which were the ancestors of man, are found in large numbers in layers from the lower Oligocene, Pliocene and Pleistocene of the Old World. Fossil monkeys, which include apidium, oreopithecus, macaques and baboons, were widespread in Europe, Asia, and Africa. The origin of the Old World monkeys is still debatable, it was believed that they are descended from lemurs, but their origin from tarsiers is more likely. The ancestral form for later great apes and, accordingly, hominids is the lower Oligocene propliopithecus, it was from him that the evolution of the “small anthropoid apes” of the gibbon type began, the intermediate link of which is pliopithecus. Another branch is the line of large fossil great apes, represented in the Miocene by Sivapithecus, Dryopithecus and other forms. .

Only in the Old World, starting from the Lower Oligocene, paleontologists find the remains of fossil anthropoid apes (appendices 1.2).

Miocene - the period of development of higher apes. Numerous remains of various anthropomorphic species are known from the Miocene deposits in Europe, India, and Equatorial Africa. Their common name is dryopithecus (an ancient arboreal anthropomorphic monkey that lived during the Oligocene era), although some of them were not purely arboreal creatures, as they do not have a specialization for brachiation. (moving along the branches of trees only with the help of hands, intercepting the branches with one or the other hand; legs pressed to the stomach or extended), and to move on the ground on four limbs. They are considered the "generalized" form. Their habitat was a dry forest biotope.

Dryopithecus - the oldest anthropomorphic monkeys, are very close to the African higher apes, and in some features some of their forms are more similar to humans than modern anthropoids.

Two types of Dryopithecus are well described: Fontanov's Dryopithecus and Darwin's Dryopithecus. An analysis of the preserved bones of Fontanov's Dryopithecus led paleontologists to the conclusion that they are similar to the bones of living Banobu pygmy chimpanzees, and the remains of the skeletons of Darwin's Dryopithecus and other Dryopithecus species are similar to the skeletons of gorillas and chimpanzees.

The third stage - the appearance of man. In 1934-1955, fragments of different types of great apes were found, which have many similarities with humans. From 1924 to 1949, there were numerous fragmentary fossils of anthropomorphic apes belonging to the great primates in South Africa. These primates were combined into one subfamily of Australopithecus (three genera with five species). Australopithecus (Greek - southern monkey) - upright, terrestrial, gregarious, mammal. The common name of several species of ancient anthropomorphic monkeys (Appendix 3).

Australopithecus are close in structure to the African higher apes, but they simultaneously show great resemblance to humans, so they are classified as hominids. This similarity: fitness for bipedia (movement on two hind limbs), in the structure of the teeth, the features of the skull.

Bipedal gait was different from human and was imperfect, since the structure of the pelvis and femur is different from human. The milk and permanent teeth of Australopithecus are similar to human teeth. The skull of the Paranthropus (one of the Australopithecus species) combines the features of higher apes and humans. Pragnathism is weakly expressed, the chin protrusion is completely absent, but the facial skeleton is powerful and thick.

Thus, on the African continent in the period from 1 to 4 million years ago, there lived creatures that, in terms of the method of movement (bipedia), the structure of their teeth, were closer to people than to antpropomorphic monkeys, but in the shape of the endocran they are more similar to chimpanzees than to man. In terms of brain volume (the absolute value is approximately 500 - 700 cm 3), they were significantly inferior to humans and slightly superior to modern chimpanzees and gorillas (435 - 500 cm 3, respectively). Their body weight was less than that of modern chimpanzees and gorillas. The foot was similar to a human, but the hand was archaic. They had a sagittal crest, did not have a chin protrusion, and a superciliary ridge stood out on the face. Creatures could communicate with each other using sound signals in the form of screams. The significance of the finds lies in the fact that Australopithecus fills a gap in the chain of creatures leading from animals to humans, and speaks in favor of recognizing Africa as the ancestral home of man. Australopithecus belongs to the hominid family ( includes modern man and his predecessors) as a subfamily of Australopithecus.

The skulls of baboons found together with Australopithecus bore traces of strong splitting blows, which indicates hunting for baboons with the help of long bones of ungulates. Australopithecus used humerus, femur and tibia bones as percussion instruments, horns as piercing tools, and blades, palate bones, etc. as cutting plates and scrapers.

In 1959, the skull of a creature similar to Australopithecus was discovered. According to some features, the skull belongs to Paranthropus (sagittal crest, small sizes of fangs and incisors, flat forehead, etc.), according to others - Australopithecus (high vault of the skull, deep palate, etc.), but there are many features, sharply distinguishing it from other Australopithecus, it was first identified in a special genus - Zinjanthropus. The zygomatic region of the temporal bone is unusually well developed, there are features in the structure of the skull. At the same time, remains were found there that differed from the remains of the Zinjanthropus and were more similar to humans, which were later designated in 1964 as inert remains belonging to the species Homo habiis - "handy man".

In 1891-1893, the anatomist and doctor Eugene Dubois found the remains of a creature called Pithecanthropus on the island of Java (a geographical version of Homo erectus (pithekos - monkey, antropos - man), refers to archanthropes. This term was introduced into biology, and later it began to be used in anthropology, by C. Darwin, who suggested that there once existed between man and ape intermediate , called Pithecanthropus . The teeth differ in type: the molars are similar to the teeth of an orangutan, and the premolars are similar to the teeth of a modern person. The capacity of the skull of the cerebral region was approximately 900 cm 3 (in modern man, about 1400 cm 3). The forehead is sloping, similar to the forehead of a chimpanzee. The vault of the skull is low, the occipital region is flattened from above, the chin is barely marked. There is a supraorbital ridge in the form of a canopy. The brain is close to the human brain, but primitive, since the frontal gyrus is less developed than in humans. The frontal cover is located higher, the orbital surface of the frontal lobe is more open - a feature that is pronounced in higher monkeys. The parietal lobe is less developed than in humans. The femur resembles a human one in its structure and size, the creature's height was approximately 165-170 cm.

In the limestone caves near Beijing in the early 1920s, more than 40 partial skeletons of synanthropes were found - men and women of different ages. Sinanthropus had a skull with massive supraorbital ridges, a low and sloping forehead, similar to the skull of Pithecanthropus. The jaws are massive, there is no chin, the nose is wide and flat. The brain cavity was larger than that of Pithecanthropus, from 850 cm 3 to 1220 cm 3 , along the elevation of the parietal region, the brain of Sinanthropus is transitional in relation to the brain of a Neanderthal, but pointed and turned downwards, like in African anthropoids. Strong protrusion of the upper jaw (prognathism) speaks of primitive features. Sinanthropes knew how to make tools, which is proved by the fact that their hands were free, and they moved on two legs. The growth of synanthropes, determined by the length of the femur, was 162 cm for men and 152 cm for women.

In 1907, near the city of Heidelberg, a jaw with teeth of an anthropoid was discovered, which received - heidelberg man, which had specific features of the structure of the jaws, and the structure of the teeth is almost the same as the teeth of a modern person. His fangs do not have a conical shape, they do not protrude above the common row of teeth, and there are no diastemas.

Pithecanthropes, Sinanthropes Heidelberg man and other representatives of this species of man are united under the name "archanthropes" (old people). The bone remains of archanthropes are known from the Early and Middle Pleistocene of Asia, Africa and Europe (their age is determined from 1.9 million years to 360 thousand years). All of the listed representatives of fossil hominids belong to the species Homo erectus - a straight man . All archnanthropes had a high brow and a powerful supraorbital ridge, a sloping forehead, a low cranial vault with a flattened occipital region, strong prognathism, and the absence of a chin protrusion of the lower jaw. The gait was somewhat awkward, as the pelvic bones were fused. It is believed that the presence of endocranes indicates the growth of cortical fields that regulate directed hand movements, the development of zones that provide analysis of signals from visual, auditory and tactile centers, which allowed the brain to improve sound signaling (there was no articulate speech, but the existence of certain signals is possible). Pithecanthropes lived as a primitive herd in which instinctive forms of mutual assistance (between a mother and her children) were developed; conscious forms were hardly common, they manifested themselves only in conditions of certain types of activity (hunting and protection from enemies). Sick or infirm group members were simply left to fend for themselves without assistance.

Pithecanthropes settled on all the continents of the Old World, even penetrating the islands of Oceania and surviving the Ice Age, died out in Africa and Europe with the advent of the Neanderthal, and on the islands of Oceania about 100 thousand years ago with the advent of the Cro-Magnon. Anthropologists say that the main reason for the extinction of the Pithecanthropus is competition with the Neanderthal and Cro-Magnon, as with more advanced species.

The discovery of Pithecanthropus was extremely important, since even earlier in 1848 fossil skulls and fragments of the Neanderthal skeleton were found, but Neanderthals are less primitive in their organization than Pithecanthropes, most importantly, Neanderthals almost did not differ from modern humans in terms of brain volume. The discovery of Pithecanthropus was the most important proof of Darwin's theory about the origin of man from higher apes.

The next stage of anthropogenesis is associated with the appearance of ancient people - paleoanthropes. Paleoanthropes is a common name for fossil humans who are more advanced than archanthropes but less than neoanthropes. The bone remains of paleoanthropes are known from the Middle and Late Pleistocene of Europe, Asia and Africa, the age of the remains found dates from 250 to 40 thousand years (according to some sources, it is believed that Pithecanthropes died out 28 - 30 thousand years ago), a number of anthropologists are of the opinion that the first Neanderthals appeared much earlier than about 1.5 million years.

The first finds of the remains of paleoanthropes (skull) were made in 1848 in the Gibraltar fortress. In 1956, the skull and bones of a paleoanthrope were discovered near the Neandertal River near Düsseldorf. By the name of the river, this species of paleoanthropes was named the Neanderthal. According to the time of existence and morphological (external) features, two groups of Neanderthals are distinguished. The early ones lived from 1.5 million years ago until the glaciation period, the later ones appeared during the ice age about 400 thousand years ago. The following features are characteristic: a vertical profile of the face, a reduced chin relief (the chin has not formed to the extent that is inherent in a modern person), a more progressive structure of the teeth, a brain volume from 1200 to 1400 (reached 1600 cm 3). They had a strongly developed brow, the back of the head was compressed from behind, the facial opening was wide, the presence of an occipital ridge, and some other features distinguish them from modern humans. Their upper limbs were well developed, they were mobile, and the manipulative abilities of the hand provided a significant power grip. Growth is not high (155 - 165 cm), shoulders are wide, physically strong, the proportions of the body are close to the proportions of a modern person, but the body was barrel-shaped, although some anthropologists believe that such remains could belong to the sick. The gait was somewhat awkward, as the pelvic bones were still fused. According to anthropologists, the Neanderthal had speech, albeit imperfect (in the form of babbling).

The ability for articulate speech is determined by the structure of such structures as: bending the root of the tongue into the laryngeal cavity, strengthening the vocal cords, growing inwards the edges of the arytenoid cartilages of the larynx. The presence of all of the above would indicate a clear differentiation of sounds, since the inhaled air would be well divided into the upper jet (nasal) and lower (oral). The movable tongue allows you to pronounce different sounds clearly (dental, palatal, labial). However, the massive lower jaws of archanthropes and paleoanthropes indicate that a quick change in articulation and fluency of speech was impossible. Therefore, the improvement of speech is associated not only with the development of the brain, but also with the gradual morphological transformations of the facial skeleton.

Among Neanderthals, the first indirect evidence of social organization is found, which manifested itself in evidence of concern for members of the collective. This is evidenced by Neanderthal burials, as well as the discovery of overgrown limb fractures on the bones of people. An injured hunter could not survive without the help of other members of the group, who at least provided him with food for a long time. In addition, the bones of people whose age at the time of death was 40-50 years old were found, they were very old people, practically incapable of working, but probably possessing knowledge and skills in making tools, so their life was valuable for members of society. . This species of man was well adapted to the harsh living conditions during the great glaciation. They were skilled hunters, since only a sufficient amount of meat and warm animal skins could ensure the survival of a group (consisting of 20-25 people of different ages) in a cold climate.

The main reason for the extinction of the Neanderthal, despite their excellent adaptation to the harsh conditions of their habitat, anthropologists call competition with the appeared Cro-Magnon, as with a more perfect species. In their opinion, despite the rather large volume of the brain, the Neanderthal was not as smart, his brain was not as flexible as the Cro-Magnon man who lived with him at the same time and in the same territories. The Cro-Magnon gradually pushed the Neanderthal from the best hunting grounds to places where there were few animals, which contributed to the extinction of paleoanthropes. In the society of the Neanderthals, as well as, probably, the Pithecanthropes, and later the Cro-Magnons, there was cannibalism or anthropophagy. This is evidenced by split skulls and burnt bones of the limbs split along the length, from which the bone marrow was extracted. Due to the lack of food, the size of the group could probably decrease for these reasons as well.

According to another version, the extinction of the Neanderthals is more related to the imperfection of the birth canal of women, since their pelvic bones were fused. The head of the fetus was large, the bones of the mother during childbirth could not always diverge sufficiently, so the death of the mother and child was very likely, the number of Neanderthals practically did not increase, and the environmental conditions were harsh. Total population species, despite the huge habitat (Europe, the Middle East, Africa) was small (approximately 20,000 thousand individuals), and low breeding rates contributed to the extinction of the Neanderthals.

The last of the known stages of human evolution began, according to anthropologists, from about 200 to 100 thousand years ago with the emergence of neoanthropes (some of modern anthropologists believe that neoanthropes appeared much earlier, about 500 thousand years ago, but were few in number, occupied a small territory and earlier remains have not yet been found), which were the direct ancestors of modern man. The first discovery of a neoanthrope was made in 1868 in the grotto of Cro-Magnon (on the territory of the French province of Dordogne), he was called Cro-Magnon. These remains date back to 38 - 40 thousand years BC. In recent years, the remains of a person belonging to the Cro-Magnon type have been found; they are dated at 60 and 100 thousand years BC. The Cro-Magnons fully corresponded to the anthropological type of modern man, the differences were insignificant, a somewhat lower cranial vault, teeth are more developed, the brain volume is 1400 - 1500 cm 3. The jaw apparatus of the Cro-Magnon is smaller than that of the Neanderthal, the chin is well developed, the supraorbital ridge is absent, there is no supraorbital constriction, the cranial vault is high, the frontal lobes are well developed, graceful physique, thin bones. Neoanthrope sites have been found throughout Europe, not in the Pamirs, in Central Asia, in Siberia, in Kamchatka. The social organization of the Cro-Magnons probably did not differ much from the social organization of the Neanderthals, but subsequently they improved and complicated their relations, which led to the formation of a clan first, and then a tribe. The biological evolution of man has ended, the average rate of this process can be estimated from the rate of increase in the brain of hominids, which was about 50 cm 3 per 100,000 years.

During this period, man settled around the world, mastering various natural areas. Modern anthropological studies have shown that Australia was inhabited about 60-70 thousand years ago, where the Cro-Magnon man came through Indonesia. At the same time, on the island of Java, he encountered a Pithecanthropus, which could not stand the competition and died out, and in Europe, Western and Central Asia with a Neanderthal. America was settled approximately 12-15 thousand years ago through China. Through Kamchatka, Chukotka and along the Bering Bridge, the Cro-Magnon came to Alaska, then mastered North America, then Central and South. The settlement of America lasted an average of 1-2 thousand years. Evidence of this way of settlement is the same technique for making tools (the technology for making knives is identical throughout America). Findings of the remains of neoanthropes indicate that racial variants begin to appear in them, which is undoubtedly due to the influence of environmental conditions, that is, those natural conditions where a person lived.

Thus, the main feature of human evolution is the strengthening of the complex of signs of the hominid triad characteristic of humans: upright posture, manipulative abilities of the hand, an increase in the mass of the brain and the complication of its structure and function. Bipedalism led to the gradual structural transformation of the upper and lower extremities, spinal column, pelvic girdle, chest, and body proportions. The strong development of the brain, an increase in its mass, the development of the anterior frontal and parietal lobes, the development of speech all contributed to the development of a unique phenomenon - the human psyche.

Anthropogenesis (from the Greek anthropos - man + genesis - origin) - the process of historical formation. Today there are three main theories of anthropogenesis.

Creation theory, the oldest in existence, claims that man is the creation of a supernatural being. For example, Christians believe that man was created by God in a one-time act "in the image and likeness of God." Similar ideas are present in other religions, as well as in most myths.

evolutionary theory claims that man descended from ape-like ancestors in the process of long development under the influence of the laws of heredity, variability and natural selection. The foundations of this theory were first proposed by the English naturalist Charles Darwin (1809-1882).

space theory claims that man is of extraterrestrial origin. He is either a direct descendant of alien beings, or the fruit of experiments by extraterrestrial intelligence. According to most scholars, this is the most exotic and least likely of the major theories.

Stages of human evolution

With all the diversity of points of view on anthropogenesis, the vast majority of scientists adhere to evolutionary theory, which is confirmed by a number of archaeological and biological data. Consider the stages of human evolution from this point of view.

Australopithecus(Australopithecus) is considered the closest to the ancestral form of man; he lived in Africa 4.2-1 million years ago. The body of Australopithecus was covered with thick hair, and in appearance it was closer to a monkey than to man. However, he already walked on two legs and used various objects as tools, which was facilitated by the outstretched thumb. The volume of his brain (in relation to the volume of the body) was less than a human, but more than that of modern great apes.

skillful man(Homo habilis) is considered the very first representative of the human race; he lived 2.4-1.5 million years ago in Africa and was named so because of his ability to make simple stone tools. His brain was a third larger than that of an Australopithecus, and the biological features of the brain indicate the possible rudiments of speech. Otherwise, the skilled man was more like an Australopithecus than a modern man.

Homo erectus(Homo erectus) settled 1.8 million - 300 thousand years ago in Africa, Europe and Asia. He made complex tools and already knew how to use fire. His brain is close in volume to the brain of a modern person, which allowed him to organize collective activities (hunting large animals) and use speech.

In the period from 500 to 200 thousand years ago, there was a transition from Homo erectus to a rational person (Homo sapiens). It is rather difficult to detect the border when one species replaces another, therefore representatives of this transitional period are sometimes called ancient human being.

Neanderthal(Homo neanderthalensis) lived 230-30 thousand years ago. The volume of the Neanderthal brain corresponded to the modern one (and even slightly exceeded it). Excavations also testify to a fairly developed culture, which included rituals, the beginnings of art and morality (care for fellow tribesmen). Previously, it was believed that the Neanderthal man is the direct ancestor of modern man, but now scientists are inclined to believe that he is a dead-end, “blind” branch of evolution.

reasonable new(Homo sapiens sapiens), i.e. a man of the modern type, appeared about 130 thousand (perhaps more) years ago. Fossil "new people" at the place of the first find (Cro-Magnon in France) were called Cro-Magnons. Cro-Magnons outwardly differed little from modern man. They left numerous artifacts that allow us to judge the high development of their culture - cave painting, miniature sculpture, engravings, jewelry, etc. Homo sapiens, thanks to his abilities 15-10 thousand years ago, populated the entire Earth. In the course of improving the tools of labor and the accumulation of life experience, a person moved to a productive economy. During the Neolithic period, large settlements arose, and mankind in many parts of the planet entered the era of civilizations.

Human evolution is a theory of the origin of humans created by the English naturalist and traveler Charles Darwin. He claimed that the ancient came from. To confirm his theory, Darwin traveled a lot and tried to collect different ones.

It is important to emphasize here that evolution (from Latin evolutio - “deployment”), as a natural process of the development of wildlife, accompanied by a change in the genetic composition of populations, really takes place.

But regarding the emergence of life in general and the emergence of man in particular, evolution is rather scarce in scientific evidence. It is no coincidence that it is still considered just a hypothetical theory.

Some tend to believe in evolution, considering it the only reasonable explanation for the origin of modern people. Others completely reject evolution as an anti-scientific thing, and prefer to believe that man was created by the Creator without any intermediate options.

So far, neither side has been able to scientifically convince opponents that they are right, so we can confidently assume that both positions are based purely on faith. What do you think? Write about it in the comments.

But let's deal with the most common terms associated with the Darwinian idea.

australopithecines

Who are Australopithecus? This word can often be heard in pseudo-scientific conversations about human evolution.

Australopithecus (southern monkeys) are upright descendants of driopithecus that lived in the steppes about 4 million years ago. These were quite highly developed primates.

skillful man

It was from them that the most ancient species of people originated, whom scientists call Homo habilis - "handy man."

The authors of the theory of evolution believe that in appearance and structure a skilled man did not differ from anthropoid apes, but at the same time he already knew how to make primitive cutting and chopping tools from roughly processed pebbles.

Homo erectus

The fossil species of people Homo erectus (“upright man”), according to the theory of evolution, appeared in the East and already 1.6 million years ago spread widely across Europe and Asia.

Homo erectus was of medium height (up to 180 cm) and was distinguished by a straight gait.

Representatives of this species learned to make stone tools for labor and hunting, used animal skins as clothing, lived in caves, used fire and cooked food on it.

Neanderthals

Once upon a time, the Neanderthal man (Homo neanderthalensis) was considered the ancestor of modern man. This species, according to the theory of evolution, appeared about 200 thousand years ago, and ceased to exist 30 thousand years ago.

Neanderthals were hunters and had a powerful physique. However, their height did not exceed 170 centimeters. Scientists now believe that Neanderthals were most likely just a side branch of the evolutionary tree from which man originated.

Homo sapiens

Homo sapiens (in Latin - Homo sapiens) appeared, according to Darwin's theory of evolution, 100-160 thousand years ago. Homo sapiens built huts and huts, sometimes even living pits, the walls of which were sheathed with wood.

They skillfully used bows and arrows, spears and bone hooks for catching fish, and also built boats.

Homo sapiens was very fond of painting the body, decorating clothes and household items with drawings. It was Homo sapiens who created the human civilization that exists and develops to this day.

It should be said that this entire evolutionary chain of human origin is exclusively Darwin's theory, which still has no scientific evidence.